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Phytohormones 2022–2023

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A special issue of Biomolecules (ISSN 2218-273X). This special issue belongs to the section "Natural and Bio-inspired Molecules".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 13402

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Prof. Dr. Guzel Kudoyarova

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Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Ufa Institute of Biology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa 450054, Russia
Interests: plant productivity; phytohormones; plant growth promoting bacteria; bacterial metabolites; plant-microorganism interaction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Guzel R. Akhiyarova

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Ufa Institute of Biology, Ufa Federal Research Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, pr. Oktyabrya 69, 450054 Ufa, Russia
Interests: plant physiology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The hormonal system plays a decisive role in the control of plant growth and development. Alongside classical plant hormones (auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid), hormonal function is now attributed to jasmonates, salicylic acid, and brassinosteroids. Plant hormones are capable of influencing vital processes, including plant growth and development, adaptation to the environment, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and productivity. In accordance, plant hormones are attractive tools for biotechnology aimed at improving plant performance in accordance with human needs. Thus, the synthesis of plant hormones by rhizosphere microorganisms is the base for their capacity to promote plant growth as well as for application of their preparations in crop production. Still, the success of the use of plant hormones depends on the knowledge of the mechanisms of their action. Advances in the study of plant hormones include the discovery of their receptors and cascades of hormonal signal transduction, identification of their target genes and those controlling hormonal metabolism and signaling, revealing cross-talk between hormones and their interaction with calcium, reactive oxygen species, and nitrogen oxide signaling.

We invite investigators to contribute high-quality original research and review articles focused on the implication of plant hormones in plant growth and development, their adaptation to the environment and resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses (molecular, cellular, and whole plant aspects of the problems), cross-talk between plant hormones and their interaction with other signaling systems, and the importance of hormones for plant growth promotion by soil microorganisms.

Three previous Special Issues on Phytohormones already appeared in 2019, 2020 and 2021 (see: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biomolecules/special_issues/biomolecules_phytohormones;
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biomolecules/special_issues/Phytohormones_2020;
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biomolecules/special_issues/Phytohormones_2021), and many interesting articles were submitted, accepted, and published. Our team did its best to simplify and speed up the processing of articles, and the comments of our invited reviewers helped to improve their quality. Many of them were accepted for publication no later than a month after their initial submission. We will aim to provide the same level of service this time around.

Prof. Dr. Guzel Kudoyarova
Dr. Guzel R. Akhiyarova
Guest Editors

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23 pages, 5844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Cytokinins and Abscisic Acid in the Growth, Development and Virulence of the Pathogenic Fungus Stagonospora nodorum (Berk.)

by Tatyana V. Nuzhnaya, Antonina V. Sorokan, Guzel F. Burkhanova, Igor V. Maksimov and Svetlana V. Veselova

Biomolecules 2024, 14(5), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom14050517 - 25 Apr 2024

Viewed by 312

Abstract

Cytokinins (CKs) and abscisic acid (ABA) play an important role in the life of both plants and pathogenic fungi. However, the role of CKs and ABA in the regulation of fungal growth, development and virulence has not been sufficiently studied. We compared the ability of two virulent isolates (SnB and Sn9MN-3A) and one avirulent isolate (Sn4VD) of the pathogenic fungus Stagonospora nodorum Berk. to synthesize three groups of hormones (CKs, ABA and auxins) and studied the effect of exogenous ABA and zeatin on the growth, sporulation and gene expression of necrotrophic effectors (NEs) and transcription factors (TFs) in them. Various isolates of S. nodorum synthesized different amounts of CKs, ABA and indoleacetic acid. Using exogenous ABA and zeatin, we proved that the effect of these hormones on the growth and sporulation of S. nodorum isolates can be opposite, depends on both the genotype of the isolate and on the concentration of the hormone and is carried out through the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. ABA and zeatin regulated the expression of fungal TF and NE genes, but correlation analysis of these parameters showed that this effect depended on the genotype of the isolate. This study will contribute to our understanding of the role of the hormones ABA and CKs in the biology of the fungal pathogen S. nodorum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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16 pages, 4224 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hormonal Status of Transgenic Birch with a Pine Glutamine Synthetase Gene during Rooting In Vitro and Budburst Outdoors

by Vadim G. Lebedev, Alla V. Korobova, Galina V. Shendel and Konstantin A. Shestibratov

Biomolecules 2023, 13(12), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13121734 - 02 Dec 2023

Viewed by 976

Abstract

Improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is one of the main ways of increasing plant productivity through genetic engineering. The modification of nitrogen (N) metabolism can affect the hormonal content, but in transgenic plants, this aspect has not been sufficiently studied. Transgenic birch (Betula pubescens) plants with the pine glutamine synthetase gene GS1 were evaluated for hormone levels during rooting in vitro and budburst under outdoor conditions. In the shoots of the transgenic lines, the content of indoleacetic acid (IAA) was 1.5–3 times higher than in the wild type. The addition of phosphinothricin (PPT), a glutamine synthetase (GS) inhibitor, to the medium reduced the IAA content in transgenic plants, but it did not change in the control. In the roots of birch plants, PPT had the opposite effect. PPT decreased the content of free amino acids in the leaves of nontransgenic birch, but their content increased in GS-overexpressing plants. A three-year pot experiment with different N availability showed that the productivity of the transgenic birch line was significantly higher than in the control under N deficiency, but not excess, conditions. Nitrogen availability did not affect budburst in the spring of the fourth year; however, bud breaking in transgenic plants was delayed compared to the control. The IAA and abscisic acid (ABA) contents in the buds of birch plants at dormancy and budburst depended both on N availability and the transgenic status. These results enable a better understanding of the interaction between phytohormones and nutrients in woody plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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14 pages, 2423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Growth-Inhibitory Effect of Increased Planting Density Can Be Reduced by Abscisic Acid-Degrading Bacteria

by Lidiya Vysotskaya, Elena Martynenko, Alena Ryabova, Ludmila Kuzmina, Sergey Starikov, Sergey Chetverikov, Elvina Gaffarova and Guzel Kudoyarova

Biomolecules 2023, 13(11), 1668; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13111668 - 19 Nov 2023

Viewed by 923

Abstract

High-density planting can increase crop productivity per unit area of cultivated land. However, the application of this technology is limited by the inhibition of plant growth in the presence of neighbors, which is not only due to their competition for resources but is also caused by growth regulators. Specifically, the abscisic acid (ABA) accumulated in plants under increased density of planting has been shown to inhibit their growth. The goal of the present study was to test the hypothesis that bacteria capable of degrading ABA can reduce the growth inhibitory effect of competition among plants by reducing concentration of this hormone in plants and their environment. Lettuce plants were grown both individually and three per pot; the rhizosphere was inoculated with a strain of Pseudomonas plecoglossicida 2.4-D capable of degrading ABA. Plant growth was recorded in parallel with immunoassaying ABA concentration in the pots and plants. The presence of neighbors indeed inhibited the growth of non-inoculated lettuce plants. Bacterial inoculation positively affected the growth of grouped plants, reducing the negative effects of competition. The bacteria-induced increase in the mass of competing plants was greater than that in the single ones. ABA concentration was increased by the presence of neighbors both in soil and plant shoots associated with the inhibition of plant growth, but accumulation of this hormone as well as inhibition of the growth of grouped plants was prevented by bacteria. The results confirm the role of ABA in the response of plants to the presence of competitors as well as the possibility of reducing the negative effect of competition on plant productivity with the help of bacteria capable of degrading this hormone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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15 pages, 1425 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plant Hormone and Fatty Acid Screening of Nicotiana tabacum and Lilium longiflorum Stigma Exudates

by Maria Breygina, Dmitry Kochkin, Alexander Voronkov, Tatiana Ivanova, Ksenia Babushkina and Ekaterina Klimenko

Biomolecules 2023, 13(9), 1313; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13091313 - 27 Aug 2023

Viewed by 985

Abstract

Pollen germination in vivo on wet stigmas is assisted by the receptive fluid—stigma exudate. Its exact composition is still unknown because only some components have been studied. For the first time, hormonal screening was carried out, and the fatty acid (FA) composition of lipid-rich (Nicotiana tabacum) and sugar-rich (Lilium longiflorum) exudates was studied. Screening of exudate for the presence of plant hormones using HPLC-MS revealed abscisic acid (ABA) in tobacco stigma exudate at the two stages of development, at pre-maturity and in mature stigmas awaiting pollination, increasing at the fertile stage. To assess physiological significance of ABA on stigma, we tested the effect of this hormone in vitro. ABA concentration found in the exudate strongly stimulated the germination of tobacco pollen, a lower concentration had a weaker effect, increasing the concentration did not increase the effect. GC-MS analysis showed that both types of exudate are characterized by a predominance of saturated FAs. The lipids of tobacco stigma exudate contain significantly more myristic, oleic, and linoleic acids, resulting in a higher unsaturation index relative to lily stigma exudate lipids. The latter, in turn, contain more 14-hexadecenoic and arachidic acids. Both exudates were found to contain significant amounts of squalene. The possible involvement of saturated FAs, ABA, and squalene in various exudate functions, as well as their potential relationship on the stigma, is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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24 pages, 11040 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exogenous Jasmonic Acid Alleviates Blast Resistance Reduction Caused by LOX3 Knockout in Rice

by Shunyu Su, Ping Tang, Rubin Zuo, Hongfeng Chen, Tianqi Zhao, Shumin Yang and Jing Yang

Biomolecules 2023, 13(8), 1197; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13081197 - 31 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1144

Abstract

Lipoxygenase 3 (LOX3) is a lipid peroxidase found in rice embryos that is known to affect seed quality. Interestingly, deletion of the LOX3 gene has been shown to improve rice seed quality but decrease resistance to rice blast disease and drought. To investigate these opposing effects, we generated a LOX3 knockout construct (ΔLox3) in rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants. Blast resistance and transcription levels of rice genes in ΔLox3 rice plants and the effects of exogenous jasmonic acid (JA) on resistance and transcriptional levels of rice genes in Magnaporthe oryzae-infected ΔLox3 rice plants were further elucidated. The results showed that the ΔLox3 plants exhibited normal phenotypes, with high levels of methyl-linolenate and reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the genes involved in three Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways contributed to rice seed quality. M. oryzae-infected ΔLox3 plants exhibited serious blast symptoms with a reduced defense response but increased ROS-mediated cell death, and the genes involved in seven KEGG pathways contributed to rice seed quality. Exogenous JA treatment alleviated blast symptoms in infected ΔLox3 plants by hindering hyphal expansion, inhibiting ROS-mediated cell death, and increasing the defense response, and genes involved in 12 KEGG pathways contributed to rice seed quality. These findings demonstrate that LOX3 plays an important role in rice growth and defense, and its knockout improves rice quality at the expense of disease resistance. Exogenous JA provides a means to compensate for the reduction in defense responses of LOX3 knockout rice lines, suggesting potential applications in agricultural production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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25 pages, 4428 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hormonal Signaling during dPCD: Cytokinin as the Determinant of RNase-Based Self-Incompatibility in Solanaceae

by Ekaterina Zakharova, Tatiana Khanina, Andrey Knyazev, Natalia Milyukova and Lidia V. Kovaleva

Biomolecules 2023, 13(7), 1033; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13071033 - 23 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1122

Abstract

Research into molecular mechanisms of self-incompatibility (SI) in plants can be observed in representatives of various families, including Solanaceae. Earlier studies of the mechanisms of S-RNase-based SI in petunia (Petunia hybrida E. Vilm.) demonstrate that programmed cell death (PCD) is an SI factor. These studies suggest that the phytohormon cytokinin (CK) is putative activator of caspase-like proteases (CLPs). In this work, data confirming this hypothesis were obtained in two model objects—petunia and tomato (six Solanaceae representatives). The exogenous zeatin treatment of tomato and petunia stigmas before a compatible pollination activates CLPs in the pollen tubes in vivo, as shown via the intravital imaging of CLP activities. CK at any concentration slows down the germination and growth of petunia and tomato male gametophytes both in vitro and in vivo; shifts the pH of the cytoplasm (PHc) to the acid region, thereby creating the optimal conditions for CLP to function and inhibiting the F-actin formation and/or destructing the cytoskeleton in pollen tubes to point foci during SI-induced PCD; and accumulates in style tissues during SI response. The activity of the ISOPENTENYLTRANSFERASE 5 (IPT5) gene at this moment exceeds its activity in a cross-compatible pollination, and the levels of expression of the CKX1 and CKX2 genes (CK OXIDASE/DEHYDROGENASE) are significantly lower in self-incompatible pollination. All this suggests that CK plays a decisive role in the mechanism underlying SI-induced PCD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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14 pages, 1738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Methyl Jasmonate on the Growth and Biosynthesis of C13- and C14-Hydroxylated Taxoids in the Cell Culture of Yew (Taxus wallichiana Zucc.) of Different Ages

by Elena Demidova, Elena Globa, Andrey Klushin, Dmitry Kochkin and Alexander Nosov

Biomolecules 2023, 13(6), 969; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13060969 - 09 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1145

Abstract

The effects of methyl jasmonate (MeJ) on growth and taxoid formation in the cell culture of Taxus wallichiana were investigated to elucidate the specifics of phytohormone action in dedifferentiated plant cells in vitro. The characteristics of the same suspension cell culture were compared in 2017 (the «young» culture) and in 2022 (the «old» culture)—1.5 or 6 years after culture induction, respectively. MeJ (100 µM) is added to the cell suspension at the end of the exponential growth phase. Cell culture demonstrated good growth (dry weight accumulation 10–18 g/L, specific growth rate µ = 0.15–0.35 day⁻¹) regardless of its «age», cultivation system, and MeJ addition. UPLC-ESI-MS analysis revealed the presence of C14-hydroxylated taxoids (yunnanxane, taxuyunnanine C, sinenxane C, and sinenxane B) in the cell biomass. The content of C14-OH taxoids increased from 0.2–1.6 mg/gDW in «young» culture to 0.6–10.1 mg/gDW in «old» culture. Yunnanxane was the main compound in «young» culture, while sinenxane C predominated in «old» culture. Without elicitation, small amounts of C13-OH taxoids (<0.05 mg/gDW) were found only in «young» cultures. MeJ addition to «young» culture had no effect on the content of C14-OH taxoids but caused a 10-fold increase in C13-OH taxoid production (up to 0.12–0.19 mg/gDW, comparable to the bark of yew trees). By contrast, MeJ added to «old» culture was not beneficial for the production of C13-OH taxoids but notably increased the content of C14-OH taxoids (1.5–2.0 times in flasks and 5–8 times in bioreactors). These findings suggest that hormonal signaling in dedifferentiated yew cells grown in vitro is different from that in plants and can be affected by the culture’s age. This might be a result of the high level of culture heterogeneity and constant auto-selection for intensive proliferation, which leads to the predominant formation of C14-OH taxoids versus C13-OH taxoids and a modified cell response to exogenous MeJ treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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16 pages, 2421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Jasmonic and Salicylic Acids Enhance Biomass, Total Phenolic Content, and Antioxidant Activity of Adventitious Roots of Acmella radicans (Jacq.) R.K. Jansen Cultured in Shake Flasks

by Antonio Bernabé-Antonio, Clarisa Castro-Rubio, Raúl Rodríguez-Anda, José Antonio Silva-Guzmán, Ricardo Manríquez-González, Israel Hurtado-Díaz, Mariana Sánchez-Ramos, Gabriela Hinojosa-Ventura and Antonio Romero-Estrada

Biomolecules 2023, 13(5), 746; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13050746 - 26 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1395

Abstract

Acmella radicans (Asteraceae) is a plant native to America. Despite it having medicinal attributes, studies on its phytochemical properties are scarce, and biotechnological studies do not exist for this species. In this study, we established an adventitious root culture from A. radicans internodal segments in shake flasks with indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), and then elicited it with jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA). The total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were evaluated, and a comparison was made using in vitro plantlets and wild plants. Internodal segments with 0.1 mg/L IBA showed 100% root induction and exhibited better growth after transfer to shake flasks with MS liquid culture medium. JA had a significant effect on biomass increase compared to unelicited roots, mainly with 50 µM JA (28%), while SA did not show significant results. Root elicited with 100 µM (SA and JA) showed a 0.34- and 3.9-fold increase, respectively, in total phenolic content (TPC) compared to the control. The antioxidant activity was also significant, and a lower half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) was observed as the AJ concentration increased. Roots elicited with AJ (100 µM) exhibited high antioxidant activity with DPPH (IC₅₀ = 9.4 µg/mL) and ABTS (IC₅₀ = 3.3 µg/mL) assays; these values were close to those for vitamin C (IC₅₀ = 2.0 µg/mL). The TPC and antioxidant activity of in vitro plants and root cultured in shake flasks showed the lowest values in most cases; even the root cultures without elicitation were better than those of a wild plant. In this study, we demonstrated that A. radicans root culture is capable of producing secondary metabolites, while its production and antioxidant activity can be enhanced using jasmonic acid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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13 pages, 300 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Methyl Jasmonate Effectively Protect Plants under Heavy Metal Contamination? Fatty Acid Content in Wheat Leaves Exposed to Cadmium with or without Exogenous Methyl Jasmonate Application

by Natalia Repkina, Svetlana A. Murzina, Viktor P. Voronin and Natalia Kaznina

Biomolecules 2023, 13(4), 582; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13040582 - 23 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1346

Abstract

The effect of methyl jasmonate (MJ) (1 µM) on wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Moskovskaya 39), seedlings and the fatty acid (FA) content of leaves under optimal and cadmium (Cd) (100 µM) stress conditions wasinvestigated. Height and biomass accumulation was studied traditionally; the netphotosynthesis rate (P_n) was studied using a photosynthesis system, FAs’profile—GS-MS. No effect on the height and P_n rate of the MJ pre-treatment wheat at optimum growth conditions was found. MJ pre-treatment led to a decrease in the total amount of saturated (about 11%) and unsaturated (about 17%) identified FAs, except α-linoleic FA (ALA), which is probably associated with its involvement in energy-dependent processes. Under Cd impact, the MJ-treated plants had a higher biomass accumulation and P_n rate compared to untreated seedlings. Both MJ and Cd caused stress-induced elevation of palmitic acid (PA) versus an absence of myristic acid (MA), which is used for elongation. It is suggested that PA participates in alternative adaptation mechanisms (not only as a constituent of the lipid bilayer of biomembrane) of plants under stress. Overall, the dynamics of FAs showed an increase in the saturated FA that is important in the packing of the biomembrane. It is supposed that the positive effect of MJ is associated with lower Cd content in plants and a higher ALA content in leaves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

13 pages, 2414 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Abscisic Acid and Cytokinins Are Not Involved in the Regulation of Stomatal Conductance of Scots Pine Saplings during Post-Drought Recovery

by Ilya E. Zlobin, Radomira Vankova, Petre I. Dobrev, Alena Gaudinova, Alexander V. Kartashov, Yury V. Ivanov, Alexandra I. Ivanova and Vladimir V. Kuznetsov

Biomolecules 2023, 13(3), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13030523 - 13 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1179

Abstract

Delayed or incomplete recovery of gas exchange after water stress relief limits assimilation in the post-drought period and can thus negatively affect the processes of post-drought recovery. Abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation and antagonistic action between ABA and cytokinins (CKs) play an important role in regulation of stomatal conductance under water deficit. Specifically, in pine species, sustained ABA accumulation is thought to be the main cause of delayed post-drought gas exchange recovery, although the role of CKs is not yet known. Therefore, we aimed to study the effects of ABA and CKs on recovery of stomatal conductance in greenhouse-grown 3-year-old Scots pine saplings recovering from water stress. We analysed both changes in endogenous ABA and CK contents and the effects of treatment with exogenous CK on stomatal conductance. Drought stress suppressed stomatal conductance, and post-drought stomatal conductance remained suppressed for 2 weeks after plant rewatering. ABA accumulated during water stress, but ABA levels decreased rapidly after rewatering. Additionally, trans-zeatin/ABA and isopentenyladenine/ABA ratios, which were decreased in water-stressed plants, recovered rapidly in rewatered plants. Spraying plants with 6-benzylaminopurine (0.1–100 µM) did not influence recovery of either stomatal conductance or needle water status. It can be concluded that the delayed recovery of stomatal conductance in Scots pine needles was not due to sustained ABA accumulation or a sustained decrease in the CK/ABA ratio, and CK supplementation was unable to overcome this delayed recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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15 pages, 1198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Role of Phytohormones in Biomass and Polyphenol Accumulation in Salvia bulleyana In Vitro Culture

by Izabela Grzegorczyk-Karolak, Marta Krzemińska, Anna K. Kiss, Aleksandra Owczarek-Januszkiewicz and Monika A. Olszewska

Biomolecules 2023, 13(2), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13020227 - 24 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1439

Abstract

Salvia bulleyana is a plant native to the Chinese Yunnan Province. This species has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a substitute for Danshen (the roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza). The aim of our study was to establish an effective system for propagating S. bulleyana shoots to obtain large amounts of material rich in bioactive compounds. Phytohormones were used to regulate shoot growth and regeneration potential and influence plant secondary metabolism. The shoot tips were incubated on a Murashige and Skoog agar medium supplemented with 0.1 or 0.5 mg/L IAA (indole-3-acetic acid) and the cytokinins benzylaminopurine (BAP), meta-topoline (M-T), 6-benzylaminopurine riboside (RBAP), N-benzyl-9-(2-tetrahydropyranyl)-adenine (BPA) or kinetin, (K) at concentrations of 0.5, 1 or 2 mg/L. It was observed that the type and concentration of growth regulator significantly influenced the regeneration potential of S. bulleyana shoots. The highest multiplication rate was obtained when 0.1 mg/L IAA and 2 mg/L BPA were used. Under these conditions, 100% of shoot tips formed buds and almost seven buds/shoot per explant were obtained after five weeks. Meanwhile, the highest biomass was found for shoots growing on a medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/L IAA and 1 mg/L M-T: 1.2 g of fresh weight and 0.17 g of dry weight. However, a medium with 0.1 mg/L IAA and 2 mg/L RBAP was most favorable for bioactive phenolic acid content, with a total polyphenol level (37.7 mg/g dw) 4.5 times higher than in shoots grown on medium without growth regulators (8.23 mg/g dw). Finally, optimal conditions were selected by TOPSIS (technique for order of preference by similarity to the ideal solution); the culture of S. bulleyana grown on an MS medium containing 0.1 mg/L IAA and 1 mg/L M-T was found to be the most efficient for polyphenol accumulation and can be used for the production of medicinally relevant compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones 2022–2023)

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