Next Article in Journal
Does the Degree of Mutualism between Epichloë Fungi and Botanophila Flies Depend upon the Reproductive Mode of the Fungi?
Previous Article in Journal
Effect of Flagellin Pre-Exposure on the Inflammatory and Antifungal Response of Bronchial Epithelial Cells to Fungal Pathogens
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
JoF
Volume 8
Issue 12
10.3390/jof8121269
jof-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Utilization of Corn Steep Liquor for the Production of Fairy Chemicals by Lepista sordida Mycelia

by
Hajime Kobori
1,2,*,
Jing Wu
2,3,
Hirohide Takemura
4,
Jae-Hoon Choi
2,3,4,5,
Naoto Tada
1 and
Hirokazu Kawagishi
2,3,*
1
Iwade Research Institute of Mycology Co., Ltd., 1-9 Suehiro, Tsu 514-0012, Japan
2
Research Institute for Mushroom Science, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
3
Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
4
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
5
Research Institute of Green Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Fungi 2022, 8(12), 1269; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8121269
Submission received: 3 October 2022 / Revised: 30 November 2022 / Accepted: 30 November 2022 / Published: 1 December 2022
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
There are various potential practical uses of fairy chemicals (FCs) in the fields of agriculture, cosmetics, and medicine; however, the production costs of FCs are very high. To enable the practical use of FCs, more efficient and inexpensive methods of culturing the mycelia of FCs-producing fungi and producing FCs need to be developed. The purpose of the present study was to determine methods of reducing the production costs of FCs and mycelia of the FCs-producing fungus Lepista sordida. We investigated the effects of four food industrial by-products, i.e., corn steep liquor (CSL), rice bran, wheat bran, and Japanese liquor lees, as nutritional additives in the liquid culture medium of the fungus. We found that CSL was more effective than the other tested additives in increasing the production of FCs and mycelia. Medium containing 1% CSL was optimal for increasing the mycelial yield while medium containing 6% CSL was optimal for increasing the production of FCs. The reason for this difference in the optimal CSL concentration was considered to be related to the stress on the mycelia caused by the amount of nutrients in the liquid medium. These results are expected to facilitate the practical use of FCs and the mycelia of FCs-producing fungi.

1. Introduction

Rice, wheat, and corn are the most abundantly produced grains in the world [1]. In the processing of these grains for foods, corn steep liquor (CSL), rice bran, wheat bran, and Japanese liquor lees are generated as food industrial by-products. Since most of these are discarded as wastes, the development of new usages for these by-products is desired. While rice bran and wheat bran are commonly used as nutritional additives in the artificial cultivation of mushrooms [2], CSL and Japanese liquor lees are rarely used. In addition, these four by-products are rarely used as nutritional additives in liquid culture media for the mycelial cultivation of mushroom-forming fungi. However, the production costs of mycelia as well as useful substances from the mycelia may be reduced by optimizing the liquid medium used for mycelial cultivation. In fact, it has been reported that the mycelial yield of Grifola gargal, and the production of characteristic components of the fungus, benzaldehyde and ergothioneine, were increased by using the food industrial by-products from the distillery waste of a buckwheat alcohol beverage company as a nutritional additive in liquid culture when compared the use of medium containing only reagents, such as yeast extract and polypeptone [3].
In previous studies, we identified the compounds responsible for the fairy ring phenomenon, and we named them fairy chemicals (FCs) [4]. FCs consist of three compounds: 2-azahypoxanthine (AHX), imidazole-4-carboxamide (ICA), and 2-aza-8-oxohypoxanthine (AOH). AHX and ICA produced by Lepista sordida, a fairy ring-forming fungi, were involved in the growth and death of turfgrass, respectively [5,6]. Although AHX and ICA have been chemically synthesized [7,8,9,10], they were first isolated from a natural source. AHX has plant growth-promoting activity while ICA has growth-suppressing activity against various plants [5,6]. After the discovery of AHX and ICA, a novel compound, AOH, was discovered as a metabolite of AHX in plants, and it showed similar activity as AHX [11]. FCs are contained in all the plants tested regardless of the taxonomic families [11,12,13], and various studies have been conducted under the hypothesis that FCs are a novel family of plant hormones. In addition, we elucidated the molecular mechanism of the plant growth-regulating activity of FCs and the biosynthetic routes of AHX and AOH in a novel purine metabolic pathway in plants [12,13]. Since FCs show growth regulatory activity in all of the examined plants thus far, including crops, such as rice and wheat, studies on the molecular mechanism of their activity and field experiments aimed at applying the compounds to agriculture have been performed [12,13,14].
Animal experiments have indicated that AHX suppresses retinal angiogenesis as a hypoxia-inducible factor inhibitor, and that ICA inhibits the expression of Anexelekto receptor tyrosine kinase and immune checkpoint molecules (programmed death-ligand 1 and 2), and improves the response to cisplatin in cancer [15,16]. As an example of the commercial use of FCs, we found that AOH had beneficial effects on human skin [17,18,19]; we proved its safety by performing various tests, including human studies, and as a result, AOH will be launched as a cosmetic ingredient in 2022 [20,21]. However, AOH is currently expensive as a raw material for cosmetics, and methods of reducing the production costs are desired.
We are currently examining practical uses of FCs in agriculture and medicine. AOH is prepared from AHX at a relatively low cost by microbial conversion [22]. However, the production costs of AHX and ICA are very high at the present time, because they are prepared by chemical synthesis from the precursor compound 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide (AICA), which has little circulation in the general market and is expensive. Although we tried to find less costly methods of synthesizing FCs and AICA, no suitable method has been established yet. This high production cost remains the largest obstacle for the practical use and adoption of FCs in agriculture, cosmetics, and medicine. Therefore, in the present study, we determined the optimal conditions for culturing the mycelia of L. sordida and producing AHX and ICA using food industrial by-products as additives in liquid culture medium.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Fungal Material

Mycelia of L. sordida (Schuml: Fr.) Sing. (NBRC No. 112841) was obtained from the Biological Resource Center, National Institute of Technology and Evaluation (NBRC; Kisarazu, Japan).

2.2. Compositions of the Media

Four food industrial by-products, CSL (Oji Cornstarch Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan), rice bran (Rice Shop Imai, Tsu, Japan), wheat bran (Japan Agricultural Cooperatives Matsusaka, Matsusaka, Japan), and Japanese liquor lees (Ota Sake Brewery Co., Ltd., Iga, Japan), were used in the liquid culture media (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4). Yeast and glucose (YG) medium was used as the control medium. The compositions of the media are shown in Table 1. Nineteen media were used in the experiments; (1) CSL, (2) Rice bran, (3) Wheat bran, (4) Japanese liquor lees, (5) CSL-1% (Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-4% CSL-1%), (6) CSL-2%, (7) CSL-3%, (8) CSL-6% (Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-4% CSL-6%), (9) Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-2% CSL-1%, (10) Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-1% CSL-1%, (11) Salts-0% Glc-4% CSL-1%, (12) Salts-0% Glc-2% CSL-1%, (13) Salts-0% Glc-1% CSL-1%, (14) Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-2% CSL-6%, (15) Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-1% CSL-6%, (16) Salts-0% Glc-4% CSL-6%, (17) Salts-0% Glc-2% CSL-6%, (18) Salts-0% Glc-1% CSL-6% and (19) control (YG). Each reagent and nutritional additive was sequentially dissolved in water with a stirrer, and 1 N hydrochloric acid (for media containing rice bran, wheat bran, or Japanese liquor lees, and the control medium) or 1 N aqueous sodium hydroxide (for media containing CSL) was added until the pH reached 5.5 ± 0.1. The liquid media (100 mL each) were dispensed into separate 500-mL Erlenmeyer flasks, and sterilized by autoclaving at 121 °C and 1.2 atm for 20 min. After sterilization, all of the flasks were placed on a clean bench overnight to cool to room temperature.

2.3. Culture Conditions

The purchased mycelia of L. sordida arrived in a slant medium. The mycelia were placed onto the center of a Petri dish containing potato dextrose agar (PDA), and incubated in the dark at 25 °C for 7 days in an incubator (Advantec Incubator CI-610; Advantec Toyo Kaisha, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). After incubation, the PDA medium was covered with mycelia, and a block was extracted with a cork borer and used for inoculating autoclaved YG medium (100 mL in a 500 mL Erlenmeyer flask) aseptically. The inoculated medium was cultured in the dark at 25 °C with shaking (100 rpm) for 14 days in an incubator (MW-316; ABLE Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). After the incubation, the culture was homogenized with a sterilized homogenizer (Cell Master CM-100; AS ONE Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan), and 5 mL of the homogenized culture was inoculated into each of the test media or control medium (100 mL/500 mL Erlenmeyer flask) aseptically. The inoculated media were cultured in the dark at 25 °C with shaking (100 rpm) for 14 days. After the cultivation, each culture was filtered to separate the mycelia and culture filtrate. The mycelia were dried in a warm air drier (DRM420DB Electric Drying Oven; Advantec Toyo Kaisha Ltd.) at 50 °C for 14 h, then at 70 °C for 2 h. The resulting dried mycelia were weighed.

2.4. Quantification of the FCs

The FCs were quantified as previously described [23]. The culture filtrates were diluted by a factor of 10,000 with 80% acetonitrile, and subjected to liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. Allopurinol was used as an internal standard.
The quantification of FCs was performed using a Waters ACQUITY H-class UPLC system (Waters; Milford, MA, United States) connected to a Waters Xevo TQ-S micro mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization probe (Waters). MS/MS spectra were detected by a tandem quadrupole mass spectrometer in the positive ion mode. A PC-HILIC column (diameter of 2 × 100 mm, 3 μm; Shiseido, Tokyo, Japan) was used in the analysis (injection volume: 2 μL; solvent: 95% acetonitrile with 0.05% formic acid; and flow rate: 0.4 mL/min). The ion source conditions were as follows: capillary voltage: 3.50 kV; cone voltage: 30 V; desolvation temperature: 600 °C; desolvation gas flow: 1000 L/h; and cone gas flow: 50 L/h. The compounds were identified by the characteristic transitions at m/z 138 > 67 for AHX (cone voltage: 26 V; collision energy: 16 V), m/z 112 > 95 for ICA (cone voltage: 15 V; collision energy: 11 V), and m/z 137 > 110 for allopurinol (cone voltage: 26 V; collision energy: 18 V). Data acquisition and analysis were performed using MassLinx software (Waters).

2.5. Statistical Analysis

One-way analysis of variance and the Tukey–Kramer post hoc test were used for data analysis. All analyses were performed using R software (https://www.r-project.org/ (accessed on 1 October 2022)).

3. Results

3.1. Effects of Food Industrial By-Products as Nutritional Additives on the Mycelial Cultivation of L. sordida

After shaking cultivation in each liquid medium for 14 days, the medium containing CSL (CSL medium) gave the best results; the dry weight of the mycelia and FCs contents in the medium were similar to those in the positive control, respectively (Figure 1 and Figure 2). There is a report that concentration of CSL changes production amount of ethanol by yeast and candida shehatae [24]. This previous report and the result in this study indicated that low-cost CSL is much better than control (YG). Therefore, effect of concentrations of CSL was examined.

3.2. Investigation of the Optimal Concentration of CSL as a Nutritional Additive for the Mycelial Cultivation of L. sordida

To determine the optimal amount of CSL in the medium for the cultivation of L. sordida mycelia, liquid media supplemented with 1% to 6% CSL (CSL-1% to -6% media) were used to cultivate L. sordida mycelia for 14 days (Table 2). The dry weight of the cultivated mycelia was the highest in CSL-1% medium, and was 1.77 times that of the control (Figure 3). The FCs contents were the highest in the CSL-6% medium; the AHX content was 8.58 times that of the control, and the ICA content was 3.79 times that of the control (Figure 4). Concentrations of CSL higher than 6% strongly inhibited mycelial growth. These results indicated that the optimal concentration of CSL is 6% or less.

3.3. Effects of Glucose and Inorganic Salts on the Mycelial Cultivation of L. sordida

As shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4, the optimal medium for mycelial growth (CSL-1% medium) and that for FCs production (CSL-6% medium) were different. To further reduce the cost of the medium, L. sordida was cultured in CSL-1% and -6% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts (Table 3 and Table 4). Media containing CSL-1% or -6%, 1%, 2% or 4% glucose (Glc-1%, -2%, or -4%, respectively), and 0% or 0.1 + 0.1% inorganic salts (Salts-0% or -0.1 + 0.1%, respectively) were used. After cultivation with shaking in each liquid medium for 14 days, the mycelial yields and ICA content were reduced in all of the tested media when compared to the Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-4% CSL-1% medium. However, the AHX content was increased in the Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-2% CSL-1% medium, Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-1% CSL-1% medium, and Salts-0% Glc-1% CSL-1% medium (Figure 5 and Figure 6). The decrease in the mycelial yield was lower in the Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-2% CSL-6% medium than in the CSL-6% (Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-4% CSL-6%) medium (Figure 7). On the other hand, the FCs contents were decreased in all of the media, except for the AHX content in the Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-2% CSL-6% medium (Figure 8).

4. Discussion

4.1. CSL as a Nutritional Additive in Liquid Media Is Effective for the Culturing of L. sordida Mycelia

In this study, we determined the optimal conditions for culturing L. sordida mycelia using CSL, which is a food industry by-product from the manufacturing process of cornstarch. Approximately 150,000 tons of CSL are generated annually in Japan, and although some of it is used in microbial media and livestock feed, new applications of CSL are needed. We found that CSL-1% medium and CSL-6% medium were optimal for increasing the mycelial yield and the FCs contents, respectively, when compared to YG medium, which was used for liquid cultures in previous studies (Figure 3 and Figure 4). CSL has been used for liquid cultures of bacteria in the industrial production of bioactive compounds, such as penicillin and riboflavin [25,26]. In addition, it has been reported that the use of glucose and CSL enabled the production of succinic acid by Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens to become economically feasible [27]. Furthermore, the effects of CSL supplementation on fruiting body formation have been reported in the sawdust-based cultivation of Lentinula edodes [28]. However, CSL has rarely been used for the mycelial cultivation of mushroom-forming fungi to produce bioactive compounds in liquid culture. Yeast extracts in YG medium are much more expensive than CSL [29]. The results of the present study indicate that CSL medium can be used for the efficient and inexpensive cultivation of FCs-producing fungi and the production of AHX and ICA.

4.2. Speculation as to Why CSL Increased the Mycelial Yield, and AHX and ICA Contents

CSL contains inorganic substances (potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium, etc.), vitamins (inositol, choline, and niacin, etc.), saccharides (glucose, fructose, and galactose, etc.), and amino acids (glutamic acid, proline, and alanine, etc.) that are necessary for mycelial growth [28,30]. In addition, zeanic acid (2,8-dihydroxycinchoninic acid) has been isolated as a plant growth promoter from CSL [31,32]. These factors may have been responsible for the increased mycelial growth, and AHX and ICA contents in the present study. It is noteworthy, however, that AHX and ICA production was the highest in the CSL-6% medium, which was the medium that produced the least mycelia. In particular, in the CSL-1% medium with a reduced amount of glucose, the AHX content increased while the mycelial yield decreased (Figure 5 and Figure 6). In contrast, in the CSL-6% medium with a reduced amount of glucose, the AHX and ICA contents decreased while the mycelial yield increased (Figure 7 and Figure 8). The concentration of inorganic salts significantly affected the mycelial yield, and the AHX and ICA contents; CSL-1% medium with 0.1% MgSO4·7H2O and 0.1% KH2PO4 resulted in a significantly increased mycelial yield when compared to CSL-1% medium with no salts, and CSL-6% medium with the salts resulted in significantly increased AHX and ICA contents when compared to CSL-6% medium with no salts. On the other hand, with the Salts-0.1 + 0.1% Glc-1% CSL-1% medium and Salts-0% Glc-1% CSL-1% medium, the presence or absence of the inorganic salts did not affect AHX production. These results indicated that inorganic salts are not essential for increasing AHX production, but are important for increasing ICA production and the mycelial yield. These results also suggested that the stress on L. sordida caused by an excess or deficiency of nutrients in the liquid media reduced the mycelial yield, but increased AHX production. Studies on the mechanism of AHX activity have revealed that rice acquires resistance to the continuous stress from diverse environmental factors through AHX [13]. Therefore, it is speculated that the production of AHX was increased in L. sordida to gain tolerance to the stress conditions. Plants produce various defensive low molecule compounds, such as phytoalexins and allelopathic compounds, in response to external stress [33,34,35,36,37,38]. However, these kinds of compounds in mushroom-forming fungi remain almost unknown. Previously, we showed that AHX exists endogenously not only in plants, but also in fungi, and that it is biosynthesized through a novel purine metabolic pathway [12,13]. Furthermore, the ubiquitous presence of AHX in mushroom-forming fungi, such as Cortinarius caperatus, Flammulina velutipes, Grifola frondosa, Hypholoma sublateritium, Lepista nuda, Lyophyllum connatum, Lyophyllum shimeji, Lyophyllum decastes, Pholiota adiposa, and Tricholoma flavovirens, regardless of the taxonomic family, indicated that AHX might act as a stress-tolerant compound in fungi as well [12,13,39].

4.3. Efficient Mycelial Cultivation Method for L. sordida According to the Purpose

The results of the present study may contribute to the establishment of an efficient method for the mycelial cultivation of L. sordida on a plant scale in the future. Since the culture conditions for obtaining a high mycelial yield (CSL-1% medium) and high AHX and ICA contents (CSL-6% medium) differed, the appropriate concentration of CSL to use should be chosen depending on the purpose of the culture. For example, when a large amount of mycelial extract or crushed mycelia is needed, the CSL-1% medium should be selected. In contrast, when a large amount of AHX and ICA is needed, the CSL-6% medium should be selected. Since the bioconversion reaction from AHX to AOH can be performed at a relatively low cost [22], it is possible to produce any of the FCs (AHX, ICA, and AOH) in large quantities from the mycelia of FCs-producing fungi as they can be easily and inexpensively produced using the optimized conditions reported in the present study. Therefore, the mycelia and the culture broth of L. sordida cultured in CSL medium may be applicable as a cost-effective and more active fertilizer, because the synergic or additive effect of CSL, AHX and ICA [40,41,42].

5. Conclusions

In the present study, we determined efficient and inexpensive methods for obtaining FCs and mycelia from an FCs-producing fungi, L. sordida, using CSL, a food industrial by-product. Specifically, CSL-1% medium (Table 1 and Table 3) was effective for obtaining a high mycelial yield, and CSL-6% medium (Table 2 and Table 4) was effective for obtaining high FCs production. CSL is a highly concentrated acidic organic by-product that is difficult to reuse due to high costs. However, discharging CSL in wastewater is not only a waste of resources, but also a major cause of environmental pollution. The development of practical uses for CSL is a major issue faced by companies and society [43]. Our results are expected to contribute to society by reducing wastes and protecting the environment through the practical use of CSL for the commercial production of FCs and mycelia from FCs-producing fungi.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.K. (Hajime Kobori) and H.K. (Hirokazu Kawagishi); writing—original draft preparation, H.K. (Hajime Kobori); writing—review and editing, H.K. (Hirokazu Kawagishi); methodology, H.K. (Hajime Kobori), H.T. and H.K. (Hirokazu Kawagishi); formal analysis, H.T.; investigation, H.K. (Hajime Kobori), J.W., H.T., J.-H.C., N.T. and H.K. (Hirokazu Kawagishi); resources, J.W. and J.-H.C.; and project administration, H.K. (Hajime Kobori) and H.K. (Hirokazu Kawagishi). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research reported in this publication was supported by a grant from Iwade Research Institute of Mycology Co., Ltd. This work was also partially supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Specially Promoted Research “Science of fairy chemicals and their application development” (JP20H05620) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, by KAKENHI (19K22330 and 22K19174) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, a grant from the Institute for Fermentation, Osaka, and by ACT-X Grant Number JPMJAX2115 from the Japan Science and Technology Agency. The funders had no role in the design of the study, in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

We thank Oji Cornstarch Co., Ltd., for kindly providing the CSL, and Ota Sake Brewery Co., Ltd., for kindly providing the Japanese liquor lees. We also thank Yutaka Ikeda and Toshimitsu Sumiya (Shien Co., Ltd., Tsu, Japan) for valuable discussions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Shiferaw, B.; Prasanna, B.M.; Hellin, J.; Bänziger, M. Crops that feed the world 6. Past successes and future challenges to the role played by maize in global food security. Food Secur. 2011, 3, 307–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Iwade, I. Culture Methods of Mushrooms; Chikyusha: Tokyo, Japan, 1959; pp. 116–117. (In Japanese) [Google Scholar]
  3. Harada, E.; Nagatomi, F.; Kijidani, Y.; Meguro, S.; Kammera, T. Utilization of soba-shochu distillery waste for benzaldehyde and ergothioneine production from liquid culture of the edible basidiomycete Grifola gargal. Mushroom Sci. Biotechnol. 2014, 21, 165–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Mitchinson, A. Fairy chemicals. Nature 2014, 505, 298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Choi, J.-H.; Fushimi, K.; Abe, N.; Tanaka, H.; Maeda, S.; Morita, A.; Hara, M.; Motohashi, R.; Matsuaga, J.; Eguchi, Y.; et al. Disclosure of the “fairy” of fairy-ring-forming fungus Lepista sordida. ChemBioChem 2010, 11, 1373–1377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Choi, J.-H.; Abe, N.; Tanaka, H.; Fushimi, K.; Nishina, Y.; Morita, A.; Kiriiwa, Y.; Motohashi, R.; Hashizume, D.; Koshino, H.; et al. Plant-growth regulator, imidazole-4-carboxamide, produced by the fairy ring forming fungus Lepista sordida. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 9956–9959. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Beal, D.D.; Skibba, J.L.; Croft, W.A.; Cohen, S.M.; Bryan, G.T. Carcinogenicity of the antineoplastic agent, 5-(3,3-dimethyl-1-triazeno)-imidazole-4-carboxamide, and its metabolites in rats. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1975, 54, 951–957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Vaughan, K.; Wilman, D.E.V.; Wheelhouse, R.T.; Stevens, M.F.G. A 15N NMR investigation of a series of benzotriazinones and related antitumour heterocycles. Magn. Reson. Chem. 2002, 40, 300–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Leone-Bay, A.; Glaser, L. An efficient method for the preparation of 4(5)-cyanoimidazole. Synth. Commun. 1987, 17, 1409–1412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Kanzawa, F.; Hoshi, A.; Kuretani, K. Inhibition of guanine deaminase with derivatives of imidazole. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1971, 19, 1737–1738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Choi, J.-H.; Ohnishi, T.; Yamakawa, Y.; Takeda, S.; Sekiguchi, S.; Maruyama, W.; Yamashita, K.; Suzuki, T.; Morita, A.; Ikka, T.; et al. The source of “fairy rings”: 2-azahypoxanthine and its metabolite found in a novel purine metabolic pathway in plants. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 1552–1555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Kawagishi, H. Fairy chemicals—A candidate for a new family of plant hormones and possibility of practical use in agriculture. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2018, 82, 752–758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Kawagishi, H. Are fairy chemicals a new family of plant hormones? Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B 2019, 95, 29–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  14. Asai, T.; Choi, J.-H.; Ikka, T.; Fushimi, K.; Abe, N.; Tanaka, H.; Yamakawa, Y.; Kobori, H.; Kiriiwa, Y.; Motohashi, R.; et al. Effect of 2-azahypoxanthine (AHX) produced by the fairy-ring-forming fungus on the growth and the grain yield of rice. Jpn. Agric. Res. Q. 2015, 49, 45–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. Lee, D.; Miwa, Y.; Wu, J.; Shoda, C.; Jeong, H.; Kawagishi, H.; Tsubota, K.; Kurihara, T. A fairy chemical suppresses retinal angiogenesis as a HIF inhibitor. Biomolecules 2020, 10, 1405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Inoue, C.; Yasuma, T.; D’Alessandro-Gabazza, C.N.; Toda, M.; D’Alessandro, V.F.; Inoue, R.; Fujimoto, H.; Kobori, H.; Tharavecharak, S.; Takeshita, A.; et al. The fairy chemical imidazole-4-carboxamide inhibits the expression of Axl, PD-L1, and PD-L2 and improves response to cisplatin in melanoma. Cells 2022, 11, 374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Aoshima, H.; Ito, M.; Ibuki, R.; Kawagishi, H. Potential of fairy chemicals as functional cosmetic ingredients: Effect of 2-aza-8-oxohypoxanthine (AOH) on skin lightness. Int. J. Med. Mushrooms 2022, 24, 41–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Aoshima, H.; Ito, M.; Ibuki, R.; Kawagishi, H. The potential of 2-aza-8-oxohypoxanthine as a cosmetic ingredient. Cosmetics 2021, 8, 60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Aoshima, H.; Ibuki, R.; Ito, M.; Kawagishi, H. Clinical evaluation of topical lotion containing 2-aza-8-oxohypoxanthine on skin barrier function against water loss. Cosmetics 2021, 8, 83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Aoshima, H.; Matsumoto, T.; Ibuki, R.; Kawagishi, H. Safety evaluation of 2-aza-8-oxohypoxanthine by in vitro skin sensitization and human tests. Fundam. Toxicol. Sci. 2021, 8, 123–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Aoshima, H.; Hyodo, S.; Ibuki, R.; Wu, J.; Choi, J.-H.; Kawagishi, H. Safety evaluation of 2-aza-8-oxohypoxanthine based on in vitro and human patch tests. Fundam. Toxicol. Sci. 2020, 7, 207–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Choi, J.-H.; Kikuchi, A.; Pumkaeo, P.; Hirai, H.; Tokuyama, S.; Kawagishi, H. Bioconversion of AHX to AOH by resting cells of Burkholderia contaminans CH-1. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2016, 80, 2045–2050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  23. Takemura, H.; Choi, J.-H.; Matsuzaki, N.; Taniguchi, Y.; Wu, J.; Hirai, H.; Motohashi, R.; Asakawa, T.; Ikeuchi, K.; Inai, M.; et al. A fairy chemical, imidazole-4-carboxamide, is produced on a novel purine metabolic pathway in rice. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 9899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  24. Taiwo, A.E.; Madzimbamuto, T.N.; Ojumu, T.V. Optimization of corn steep liquor dosage and other fermentation parameters for ethanol production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae type 1 and anchor instant yeast. Energies 2018, 11, 1740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  25. Perlman, D. The evolution of penicillin manufacturing processes. In the history of penicillin production. Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser. 1970, 60, 25–30. [Google Scholar]
  26. Harned, R.L. Riboflavine Production. U.S. Patent 3,475,274, 28 October 1969. [Google Scholar]
  27. Lee, P.; Lee, W.; Lee, S.; Chang, H.; Chang, Y. Fermentative production of succinic acid from glucose and corn steep liquor by Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens. Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng. 2000, 5, 379–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Abe, M.; Iida, S.; Ohga, S. Supplemental effect of corn steep liquor in a sawdust−based substrate of Shiitake (Lentinuta edodes). Jpn. Soc. Mushroom Sci. Biotechnol. 2002, 10, 29–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Maleki-Kakelar, M.; Azarhoosh, M.J.; Senji, S.J.; Aghaeinejad-Meybodi, A. Urease production using corn steep liquor as a low-cost nutrient source by Sporosarcina pasteurii: Biocementation and process optimization via artificial intelligence approaches. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022, 29, 13767–13781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Nakano, A.; Uehara, Y.; Yamauchi, A. Effects of organic liquid fertilizer (corn steep liquor) on initial growth and rhizosphere of tomato plant. Environ. Control. Biol. 2000, 38, 211–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Matsushima, H.; Fukumi, H.; Arima, K. Isolation of zeanic acid, a natural plant growth-regulator from corn steep liquor and its chemical structure. Agric. Biol. Chem. 1973, 37, 1865–1871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Matsushima, H.; Arima, K. Physiological activities of zeanic acid, a new plant-growth promotor from corn steep liquor. Agric. Biol. Chem. 1973, 37, 1873–1880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Adio, A.M.; Casteel, C.L.; Vos, M.D.; Kim, J.-H.; Joshi, V.; Li, B.; Juéry, C.; Daron, J.; Kliebenstein, D.J.; Jander, G. Biosynthesis and defensive function of N Δ-acetylornithine, a jasmonate-induced Arabidopsis Metabolite. Plant Cell 2011, 23, 3303–3318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Yan, J.; Aboshi, T.; Teraishi, M.; Strickler, S.R.; Spindel, J.E.; Tung, C.-W.; Takata, R.; Matsumoto, F.; Maesaka, Y.; McCouch, S.R.; et al. The tyrosine aminomutase TAM1 is required for b-tyrosine biosynthesis in rice. Plant Cell 2015, 27, 1265–1278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Alamgir, K.M.; Hojo, Y.; Christeller, J.T.; Fukumoto, K.; Isshiki, R.; Shinya, T.; Baldwin, I.T.; Galis, I. Systematic analysis of rice (Oryza sativa) metabolic responses to herbivory. Plant Cell Environ. 2016, 39, 453–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Schmelz, E.A.; Kaplan, F.; Huffaker, A.; Dafoe, N.J.; Vaughan, M.M.; Ni, X.; Rocca, J.R.; Alborn, H.T.; Teal, P.E. Identity, regulation, and activity of inducible diterpenoid phytoalexins in maize. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 5455–5460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Huffaker, A.; Kaplan, F.; Vaughan, M.M.; Dafoe, N.J.; Ni, X.; Rocca, J.R.; Alborn, H.T.; Teal, P.E.; Schmelz, E.A. Novel acidic sesquiterpenoids constitute a dominant class of pathogen-induced phytoalexins in maize. Plant Physiol. 2011, 156, 2082–2097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Christensen, S.A.; Huffaker, A.; Kaplan, F.; Sims, J.; Ziemann, S.; Doehlemann, G.; Ji, L.; Schmitz, R.J.; Kolomiets, M.V.; Alborn, H.T.; et al. Maize death acids, 9-lipoxygenase–derived cyclopente(a)nones, display activity as cytotoxic phytoalexins and transcriptional mediators. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 112, 11407–11412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Ito, A.; Choi, J.-H.; Takemura, H.; Kotajima, M.; Wu, J.; Tokuyama, S.; Hirai, H.; Asakawa, T.; Ouchi, H.; Inai, M.; et al. Biosynthesis of the fairy chemicals, 2-azahypoxanthine and imidazole-4-carboxamide, in the fairy ring-forming fungus Lepista sordida. J. Nat. Prod. 2020, 83, 2469–2476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Chinta, Y.D.; Kano, K.; Widiastuti, A.; Fukahori, M.; Kawasaki, S.; Eguchi, Y.; Misu, H.; Odani, H.; Zhou, S.; Narisawa, K.; et al. Effect of corn steep liquor on lettuce root rot (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lactucae) in hydroponic cultures. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2014, 94, 2317–2323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Sharma, R.K.; Kothari, R.M. Innovative application of corn steep liquor for the increased production of food grains. Technovation 1992, 12, 213–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Fox, J.E.; Miller, C. Factors in corn steep water promoting growth of plant tissues. Plant Physiol. 1959, 34, 577–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. Zhou, K.; Yu, J.; Ma, Y.; Cai, L.; Zheng, L.; Gong, W.; Liu, Q.-A. Corn steep liquor: Green biological resources for bioindustry. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2022, 194, 3280–3295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Jof 08 01269 g001 550
Figure 1. Effects of the media containing each of the food industrial by-products on the mycelial growth of L. sordida. The dry weight of the mycelia (the water-insoluble components) for each condition is shown. Different alphabet letters indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Figure 1. Effects of the media containing each of the food industrial by-products on the mycelial growth of L. sordida. The dry weight of the mycelia (the water-insoluble components) for each condition is shown. Different alphabet letters indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Jof 08 01269 g001
Jof 08 01269 g002 550
Figure 2. AHX and ICA contents of the culture filtrates of L. sordida mycelia cultured in media containing a food industrial by-product or YG. Different alphabet letters (capital letters for AHX, and small letters for ICA) indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Figure 2. AHX and ICA contents of the culture filtrates of L. sordida mycelia cultured in media containing a food industrial by-product or YG. Different alphabet letters (capital letters for AHX, and small letters for ICA) indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Jof 08 01269 g002
Jof 08 01269 g003 550
Figure 3. Effects of the media containing various concentrations of CSL on the mycelial growth of L. sordida. Different alphabet letters indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 4).
Figure 3. Effects of the media containing various concentrations of CSL on the mycelial growth of L. sordida. Different alphabet letters indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 4).
Jof 08 01269 g003
Jof 08 01269 g004 550
Figure 4. AHX and ICA contents of the culture filtrates of L. sordida mycelia cultured in media containing various concentrations of CSL. Different alphabet letters (capital letters for AHX, and small letters for ICA) indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Figure 4. AHX and ICA contents of the culture filtrates of L. sordida mycelia cultured in media containing various concentrations of CSL. Different alphabet letters (capital letters for AHX, and small letters for ICA) indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Jof 08 01269 g004
Jof 08 01269 g005 550
Figure 5. Effects of the CSL-1% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts on the mycelial growth of L. sordida. Different alphabet letters indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Figure 5. Effects of the CSL-1% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts on the mycelial growth of L. sordida. Different alphabet letters indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Jof 08 01269 g005
Jof 08 01269 g006 550
Figure 6. AHX and ICA contents of the culture filtrates of L. sordida mycelia cultured in CSL-1% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts. Different alphabet letters (capital letters for AHX, and small letters for ICA) indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Figure 6. AHX and ICA contents of the culture filtrates of L. sordida mycelia cultured in CSL-1% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts. Different alphabet letters (capital letters for AHX, and small letters for ICA) indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Jof 08 01269 g006
Jof 08 01269 g007 550
Figure 7. Effects of the CSL-6% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts on the mycelial growth of L. sordida. Different alphabet letters indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Figure 7. Effects of the CSL-6% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts on the mycelial growth of L. sordida. Different alphabet letters indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Jof 08 01269 g007
Jof 08 01269 g008 550
Figure 8. AHX and ICA contents of the culture filtrates of L. sordida mycelia cultured in CSL-6% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts. Different alphabet letters (capital letters for AHX, and small letters for ICA) indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Figure 8. AHX and ICA contents of the culture filtrates of L. sordida mycelia cultured in CSL-6% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts. Different alphabet letters (capital letters for AHX, and small letters for ICA) indicate significant differences (Tukey–Kramer post hoc test, p < 0.05; n = 3).
Jof 08 01269 g008
Table
Table 1. Compositions of the media containing food industrial by-products, and the control (YG) medium. All media were adjusted to a pH of 5.5 ± 0.1.
Table 1. Compositions of the media containing food industrial by-products, and the control (YG) medium. All media were adjusted to a pH of 5.5 ± 0.1.
CSLRiceWheatJapaneseControl
BranBranLiquor Lees(YG)
Glucose4%4%4%4%4%
CSL0.3%----
Rice bran-0.3%---
Wheat bran--0.3%--
Japanese liquor lees---0.3%-
Yeast extract----0.3%
MgSO4·7H2O0.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%
KH2PO40.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%
Table
Table 2. Compositions of the media containing various concentrations of CSL. All media were adjusted to a pH of 5.5 ± 0.1.
Table 2. Compositions of the media containing various concentrations of CSL. All media were adjusted to a pH of 5.5 ± 0.1.
CSLCSL-1%CSL-2%CSL-3%CSL-6%Control
(YG)
Glucose4%4%4%4%4%4%
CSL0.3%1%2%3%6%-
Yeast extract-----0.3%
MgSO4·7H2O0.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%
KH2PO40.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%0.1%
Table
Table 3. Compositions of the CSL-1% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts. All media were adjusted to a pH of 5.5 ± 0.1.
Table 3. Compositions of the CSL-1% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts. All media were adjusted to a pH of 5.5 ± 0.1.
Salts-
0.1 + 0.1%
Glc-4%
CSL-1%		Salts-
0.1 + 0.1%
Glc-2%
CSL-1%		Salts-
0.1 + 0.1%
Glc-1%
CSL-1%		Salts-0%
Glc-4%
CSL-1%		Salts-0%
Glc-2%
CSL1%		Salts-0%
Glc-1%
CSL-1%		Control
(YG)
Glucose4%2%1%4%2%1%4%
CSL1%1%1%1%1%1%-
Yeast extract------0.3%
MgSO4·7H2O0.1%0.1%0.1%---0.1%
KH2PO40.1%0.1%0.1%---0.1%
Table
Table 4. Compositions of the CSL-6% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts. All media were adjusted to a pH of 5.5 ± 0.1.
Table 4. Compositions of the CSL-6% media with reduced concentrations of glucose and inorganic salts. All media were adjusted to a pH of 5.5 ± 0.1.
Salts-
0.1 + 0.1%
Glc-4%
CSL-6%		Salts-
0.1 + 0.1%
Glc-2%
CSL-6%		Salts-
0.1 + 0.1%
Glc-1%
CSL-6%		Salts-0%
Glc-4%
CSL-6%		Salts-0%
Glc-2%
CSL-6%		Salts-0%
Glc-1%
CSL-6%		Control
(YG)
Glucose4%2%1%4%2%1%4%
CSL6%6%6%6%6%6%-
Yeast extract------0.3%
MgSO4·7H2O0.1%0.1%0.1%---0.1%
KH2PO40.1%0.1%0.1%---0.1%
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Kobori, H.; Wu, J.; Takemura, H.; Choi, J.-H.; Tada, N.; Kawagishi, H. Utilization of Corn Steep Liquor for the Production of Fairy Chemicals by Lepista sordida Mycelia. J. Fungi 2022, 8, 1269. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8121269

AMA Style

Kobori H, Wu J, Takemura H, Choi J-H, Tada N, Kawagishi H. Utilization of Corn Steep Liquor for the Production of Fairy Chemicals by Lepista sordida Mycelia. Journal of Fungi. 2022; 8(12):1269. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8121269

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kobori, Hajime, Jing Wu, Hirohide Takemura, Jae-Hoon Choi, Naoto Tada, and Hirokazu Kawagishi. 2022. "Utilization of Corn Steep Liquor for the Production of Fairy Chemicals by Lepista sordida Mycelia" Journal of Fungi 8, no. 12: 1269. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8121269

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop