1. Introduction
Worldwide plants have always represented fundamental sources of food and medicines, especially for local populations [
1]. The oldest available medicinal records date back to 5000–3000 B.C., written by the Sumerians, and show that humans understood disease and that the use of medicinal plants could help to maintain and restore good health [
2]. So, herbal medicine is one of the oldest forms of healthcare known to mankind, and many medicines commonly used today are of herbal origin. Azaizeh et al. [
3] classified herbal medicines into four typologies: traditional Chinese herbalism, which is part of traditional oriental medicine; Ayurvedic herbalism, which is derived from Ayurveda, the traditional Hindu system of medicine; Western herbalism; and Traditional Arabic and Islamic Medicine.
In addition to their medicinal function, in many countries, there is a strong link between plants and food uses. Stefanaki and van Andel [
4] documented the variety of culinary aromatic herb species used in the Mediterranean region, affirming that the most-used aromatic herbs in Mediterranean cookery are parsley, mint, laurel, oregano, thyme, rosemary, coriander, dill, basil, tarragon, chives, sage, marjoram, fennel, and chervil. Moreover, there are different countries in which there is a clear linkage between plant resources and religion, culture, tradition, scriptures, and lifestyle [
5,
6]. In some contexts, geographic, climatic, and topographic characteristics make up territories rich in diverse flora and endemic plants, including a large variety of those with important aromatic and medicinal properties [
7]. Thus, in one form or another, there are several ways people benefit from plants, including medicine, nutrition, personal hygiene, body care, incense, and ritual healing [
8]. In particular, the popularity of using these plants [
9] and the growing demand in the markets of high-income countries [
10], in which the functions of particular plants are historically linked to body care, hygiene, and aromas for perfumes, but also food or beverage uses, have been rediscovered and are causing their production to increase even more, also through their cultivation. So, today, the most important uses of medicinal and aromatic plants seem to be applications in other non-traditional sectors such as the perfume, cosmetics, toothpaste, soap, beverage, and food industries [
11]. Alongside the latter, also in agriculture, researchers are looking for active ingredients of natural origin for weed and disease control [
12] or for use as natural colorants [
13]. These trends have been accentuated—even in European countries where their use is less widespread—by the ecological transition, one of the objectives of the Green Deal.
Starting from the different functions that certain plants perform and the valuable and important roles that they play in the economic, social, cultural, and ecological ambits of local communities around the world [
8], the “category” of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) was born. In particular, the FAO’s Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Working Group defines MAPs as “botanicals that provide people with medicines to prevent disease, maintain health or cure ailments” [
8]. Indeed, MAPs play an essential role in global health systems, since more than 80% of the population use natural products in their primary healthcare. At the same time, different plants are used both in animal healthcare and in their production and reproduction, since they act as feed additives, growth promoters, immune boosters, reproduction enhancers, and also help in the reduction in methane and ammonia emissions [
14,
15,
16]. In addition, over time, the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, draining, anti-neuralgic, digestive, and calming properties of essential oils have been extensively studied [
17,
18,
19,
20,
21,
22,
23,
24], and aromatherapy has taken on an important role in research [
25,
26,
27,
28,
29,
30]. Consequently, the global use of herbal medicines has exponentially increased, as well as many MAP products being introduced into the market, with many cultivation practices being applied to produce high-quality and standardized plant materials [
31].
McKenna et al. [
32], unlike FAO, distinguished medicinal from aromatic plants, making an interpretation of the multiple definitions of MAPs offered in academic research, industry associations, and regulatory bodies. In particular, the authors identified as “medicinal” those plants with botanical components proven or believed to be beneficial to health, often called botanicals or herbal drugs, while “aromatic” plants (primarily used in cosmetics, as spices, as flavoring, and in aromatherapy) were those which produce or exude volatile compounds known as essential oils. At the same time, McKenna et al. [
32] stated that, in sectoral analyses and trade studies, the terms medicinal and aromatic are often used as synonymous. Thus, in our opinion, the expression MAPs is often used with a plurality of meanings that are not always clear and well defined.
Over time, there have been several reviews that have studied MAPs, most of which focused on single species and their ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical content, pharmacological activities, cultivation, and propagation [
10,
33,
34,
35,
36,
37,
38,
39,
40,
41,
42]. Contrary to that, the present review wants to give a comprehensive overview of the academic studies on MAPs to discover how the expression MAPs has been understood by scholars over time and, more specifically, to realize the weight that socio-economic research regarding MAPs has assumed in this context.
4. Discussions
The study highlights that researchers started explicitly talking about MAPs in the 1950s and the geographical focus of the literature on this theme is in India, followed by China. It can be said that the research interest reflected the worldwide distribution of MAPs. Indeed, according to what was said by Pandey et al. [
98], in India, more than 7500 species are used in ethnomedicines, which is half of the country’s Indian native plant species, while China has around 6000 species in use that have medicinal properties.
At the same time, although the academic world began talking about MAPs in 1950, it was only in the 1990s that the interest in this topic began to be recognized, which has increased from the 2000s to today. Indeed, since the 2000s, there has been an increase in academic publications about MAPs, and the year with the highest number of results was 2021. As stated by Muley and Medithi [
52], this could have been due to the COVID-19 pandemic, when the interest of researchers focused on improving immunity using medicinal and aromatic plants, an interest which was then maintained—at least in Europe—thanks to the Green Deal and the role that MAPs can now have in the search for new natural products that can be used in all sectors to make the European Union more ecological, sustainable, and competitive.
Acta Horticulturae was the source with the highest number of publications in absolute and maintained this leadership until 2012, the year in which Industrial Crops and Products incremented its contribution. Consequently, 2012/2013 can be designated as the year that marks the transition from an entirely agronomic view of MAPs to a more pharmaceutical, chemical, and cosmetic one, even if ethnobotanical aspects always maintain a certain importance over time.
Regarding the socio-economic aspects of the research conducted on MAPs, these represented only 1% of the total academic publications. According to the general trends, they have increased since 2000, 2021 was the year with the highest number of results, and they were concentrated in India. These documents were surveys at a meso level (conducted in a region or country), and were, therefore, carried out in a specific geographical area, which, in most cases, concerned the expression MAPs in general.
The co-occurrences analysis of the keywords performed with VOSviewer software showed the “complexity” of the MAPs concept and indeterminate results, which made it necessary to carry out a deeper, qualitative analysis of the socio-economic literature on MAPs. The latter (reported in
Table 4) showed that the highest percentages were recorded for ethnobotany, essential oils, and agricultural aspects (which, together, represented around 35% of socio-economic papers). At the same time, if we observe the most recent data among the various research areas identified, the categories “Sustainable use, conservation, and valorization”, and “Rural economy” seem to be of particular interest, since the papers falling into these areas identified guidelines for the protection and valorization of local resources and rural territories and for the diversification of agriculture. Thus, the most recent issue was the prevention of the extinction of MAPs and their sustainable utilization. To this end, Raina and Gautam [
99] claimed the need for collaborative efforts by both government and researchers to restrict their harvest, reintroduce species into their natural habitat, develop in situ and ex situ conservation strategies, and formulate techniques for the scientific harvesting of these species. Karki [
100] proposed a series of actions, including raising awareness through formal and informal education means; the development of skill in sustainable harvesting; the integration of agricultural and pastoral livelihoods with off-farm activities through the value chain development of major niche products that have high-value capturing potential; improvements in degraded pasture and farmlands; conservation through sustainable-use-oriented policy and legal reforms to implement integrated strategies linking the conservation of wild fauna and flora with sustainable pastoral production systems; and the expansion of ecologically sensitive low-input high-return tourism, using pastoralists to provide services, particularly through their indigenous knowledge and improved local production practices.
Some authors [
101] have pointed out a new path through certifications, such as Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP), as a tool to support sustainable value chains and influence customer behavior towards MAPs’ consumption and sustainable harvesting, in addition to harvesting limits, legal constrains, and other command-and-control systems usually implemented by governments in different countries to preserve species against overharvesting. In particular, NWFPs have a strong link with sustainable tourism through so-called “territorial marketing”, a distinctive feature of a territory used as a brand to create an image to attract tourists to the region [
102].
According to the most recent research, the interest in territorial marketing in rural areas is growing, also in reference to MAPs, and involving the local population in the implementation process seems to be essential, as well as stakeholders’ participation, in creating an identity and linking the products to the image of the place. Sher and Barkworth [
103], in addition to demonstrating the feasibility and financial benefits of cultivating MAPs as a cash crop, identified certain steps that would increase the benefits of MAPs’ cultivation in rural areas: specialized education, market infrastructure development, and a small loans program.
With specific reference to the aim of this paper and so to realize how the expression MAPs has been understood by scholars over time, nobody has ever wondered what MAPs are, and the 1977 WHO definition has been taken for granted, with any species with medicinal or aromatic functions being considered to be an MAP. Only recently, Brinckmann et al. [
104] developed and applied a method to create a list of MAP species. With all the limitations of the study, the authors [
104] found evidence of the commercial cultivation of 3227 taxa, belonging to 235 different plant families. Thus, to date, no researcher has ever made a complete list of species to consider as MAPs, distinguishing them from non-MAPs, but this is, perhaps, almost impossible given the great variety of existing plant species with medicinal and aromatic properties. Over time, the properties of MAPs, their uses, cultivation techniques, geographical distribution, and economic value in the various national and international markets have been extensively studied, but nobody has ever wondered what a MAP is and if a species should be considered as such.
The interest of researchers has always been high, especially in recent years, and touches on different areas, ranging from more traditional to more modern uses, to the beneficial properties of essential oils, to cultivation techniques to improve productivity, and to strategies to diversify production and ensure a fair standard of living for local communities, especially in rural areas. In many countries, MAPs can represent important sources of income, and their economic value is widely recognized worldwide, but the present literature analysis shows that few researchers have approached this topic from an exclusively economic point of view. Thus, in light of the growing interest in MAPs, their nutraceutical value, and their different uses, also taking into account the ecological transition, it is necessary to strengthen the role of socio-economic research in this sector, also looking at sustainability through environmental impact assessment studies.
5. Conclusions
The results of the present systematic and bibliometric literature review highlight the importance of medicinal and aromatic plants over time, although socio-economic studies regarding MAPs were few compared to the total academic publications.
The properties of MAPs, their uses, cultivation techniques, geographical distribution, and economic value in the various national and international markets have been extensively studied over time, but, at the same time, there is a lack of estimation of the ecosystem services that MAPs offer, analyses of consumer preferences in the search for new business opportunities, and environmental impact assessments of the entire supply chain. This is especially true in the Western academic world, where, among other things, researchers should analyze the regenerative potential of MAPs within mountain and rural areas to diversify agriculture, protect these often marginal and fragile territories, and create new job opportunities to allow farmers in these areas to continue their important function of protecting the territory.
Limitations of the Study
The results of the research are influenced by the use of Scopus as the extraction database, which includes only documents with CiteScore and not the many other forms of reports (such as national and international projects) in which the socio-economic aspects of MAPs may have been discussed. Furthermore, the absence of an in-depth analysis typical of reviews, which, in the future, we intend to fill with empirical analyses on case studies, represents another limitation of the study.