Metal Source and Fluid Evolution in Xiaojiashan Gold Deposit in Northeastern Hunan, China: Implications of Rare Earth Elements, Fluid Inclusions, and Pyrite S Isotopic Compositions
1
College of Geology and Environment, Xi’an University of Science and Technology, Xi’an 710054, China
2
Second Mobile Corps of People’s Armed Police, Fuzhou 350201, China
3
School of Geosciences and Info-Physics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
4
College of Energy Engineering, Xi’an University of Science and Technology, Xi’an 710054, China
5
College of Sciences, Xi’an University of Science and Technology, Xi’an 710054, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2023, 13(1), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13010121
Submission received: 16 November 2022
/
Revised: 8 January 2023
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Accepted: 11 January 2023
/
Published: 13 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Metals on Land and in the Ocean)
Abstract
:The material source and the evolution of ore-forming hydrothermal fluids of Xiaojiashan gold deposits remain controversial. We carried out a mineralogical characteristics analysis, trace elements analysis, sulfur isotope composition analysis, and fluid inclusion microthermometry in order to explore the ore-forming sources, conditions, and process of this deposit. Gold mineralization can be divided into three stages: the quartz-pyrite stage, the quartz-polymetallic sulfide stage, and the quartz-ankerite stage. This gold deposit was probably formed under the following conditions: temperature of 122–343 °C and salinity of 0.8–11.4 wt% (NaCl). It was inferred that the ore-forming hydrothermal fluids were early metamorphic–hydrothermal (Stage I) and late magmatic–hydrothermal (Stages II and III), and were characterized by medium–low temperature and medium–low salinity based on fluid inclusion microthermometry and S isotope composition. The temperature and salinity of the ore-forming fluid decreased during mineralization, which was caused by the involvement of groundwater. The chondrite-normalized trace element patterns of the gold ores are similar to the host rocks of the Lengjiaxi Formation, indicating that the ore-forming materials were sourced from the Lengjiaxi Formation. The S isotopes indicated that the magmatic components also provided the ore-forming materials during Stages II and III.
1. Introduction
The source of ore-forming materials and the evolution of ore-forming fluids are the basis for the investigation of the genesis of deposits and establishing metallogenic mechanisms. Due to the stability, similarity, and differentiation of rare earth elements (REEs), the geochemistry of rocks has been adopted to determine fluid–rock interactions, protolith restoration, and the genesis of minerals [1,2]. The isotopic composition of S (δ34S) in sulfide ore minerals may provide information about their origin [3]. Fluid inclusions entrapped in minerals formed during mineralization are actual samples of paleo-geofluids, providing indispensable information about the mineral formation environments and geologic processes in which the minerals were formed [4,5].
The Qinzhou–Hangzhou metallogenic belt, located at the suture zone between the Yangtze block and the Cathaysia block (Figure 1a) [6,7,8], is one of the most widely known belts in China. Northeastern Hunan, an important part of the Qinzhou–Hangzhou metallogenic belt, hosts more than 250 gold deposits (occurrences) with similar occurrence rates, ore-bearing strata, and geological characteristics [9,10,11,12]. Various models have been proposed for their genesis, including orogenic [13,14,15], epithermal [16], intrusion-related [4,17], superimposed reformation [18], and SEDEX types [19,20]. One of the key controversies is the source of ore-forming materials and fluids. Liu et al. [21] proposed that the gold came from the Lengjiaxi Group. However, Dong et al. [22] and Xu et al. [13] argued that the gold was from the mixed sources of the Lengjiaxi Group, as well as mantle or deep crust magmatic rock.
The Xiaojiashan gold deposit (reserve: 7.77 t, grade: 2.88 g/t [23]) is located in the Qinzhou–Hangzhou metallogenic belt (Figure 1b), and is thought to have great prospecting potential. Intense studies have thus been carried out on its geological features [24,25,26], ore-forming material sources [18,27,28], and fluid inclusions [29,30]. However, the published results are controversial in terms of the ore-forming fluids. Tao et al. [29] proposed that the ore-forming fluids comprised metamorphic hydrothermal water with superimposed magmatic–hydrothermal water and, later, groundwater. However, Lin [30] argued that the ore-forming fluids were mainly magmatic water. A further study, by Tan et al. [18], suggested a distinct shift of ore-forming fluids from metamorphic to magmatic water during early- and late-stage mineralization, respectively, by studying the trace element compositions and sulfur isotopes of pyrite. Therefore, detailed work on field geological investigations and petrological characteristics, trace element compositions, sulfur isotopic compositions and fluid inclusions of different-mineralization-stage gold ores was carried out. The aim was to provide some new insights to probe into the gold source, metallogenic condition, and fluid evolution of gold mineralization of the Xiaojiashan gold deposit and support future geological exploration and prediction.
2. Regional Geology
Northeastern Hunan is one of the vital gold metallogenic regions in Hunan Province, central Qinzhou–Hangzhou (Qin–Hang) metallongenic belt [31]. Yanlinsi, Xiaojiashan, Huangsikeng, Zhengchong, Haizichong, etc., have all been discovered in this area (Figure 2). The strata exposed in the region comprise a Neoproterozoic Lengjiaxi Group of epi-metamorphic lithic sandstone, slate, and silty slate, along with volcanic tuffaceous materials, Upper Paleozoic carbonate rocks, and Mesozoic–Cenozoic clastic rocks [9,12,13,14,15,16]. Furthermore, the Lengjiaxi group is thought to be closely related to gold mineralization.
The tectonic lines are mainly composed of nearly NE-trending abyssal faults of Xinning–Huitang, Changsha–Pingjiang and Liuyang–Liheng from west to east, as well as pervasively developed folds [13,32]. The Changsha–Pingjiang fault in northeastern Hunan was an active fault with gold deposits (occurrences) (Figure 1b). Ore occurrences were manipulated by NE-trending subsidiary faults, folds, and shear zones [21,33].
Magmatic activity has occurred several times and magmatic rocks have developed from the Wuling orogeny to Yanshanian. Daweishan granite (802 Ma) was formed during the Neoproterozoic [34], Banshanpu granites (423–421 Ma) were formed during the early Paleozoic [35], and Lianyunshan granites (149 ± 1 Ma) were formed during the late Mesozoic [36].
3. Deposit Geology
The exposed strata in the deposit are the Huanghudong Formation and Xiaomuping Formation of the Lengjiaxi Group in the Neoproterozoic. The Huanghudong Formation, the ore-hosting strata for the gold deposits, is dominated by quartz graywacke, siltstone, and slate (Figure 3a), whereas the Xiaomuping Formation consists mainly of slate, silty slate, and sericite slate. The folds and faults are well developed and the tectonic lines are mainly NE and NW. The faults include F3, F5, F29, the Sandou–Tiancui ductile shear zone, the Yanlinsi ductile shear zone (Figure 2), and a silicified fractured zone. In the middle of the ductile shear zones, there is a flow cleavage, with a tectonic lenticular zone and a cleavage zone on both sides. The fold tectonics are known as Hongjiachong overturned syncline, Guanjiapai overturned anticline, and Yanlinsi overturned syncline from north to south. In the Yanlinsi and Haizichong gold deposits, there are only small plutons; larger, concealed plutons are present in the NE direction of Banshanpu granite, according to remote-sensing images, gravity, and magnetic anomalies [37].
The Xiaojiashan gold deposit consists of 46 orebodies, most of which occur as NE-trending veins/veinlets with a dip of 30–60° in the strata and cleavage zones in the core of the overturned anticline. The orebodies are 250–500 m long and 0.38–3.30 m wide, with a gold grade of 0.25–14.84 g/t. The gold ore is quartz-vein-type and is composed primarily of pyrite and arsenopyrite, with smaller amounts of chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, and gold (Figure 3b–i). The gangue minerals include quartz, sericite, calcite, and chlorite. The gold usually occurs as micro-gold and fissure gold with inclusion and intergranular gold in rather low amounts. There are two types of opal quartz vein: one with a lower quantity of gold and another with black bands (Figure 3c). Gold contents depend on the band amounts: the more black bands, the higher the grade of the gold in the veins. These black-banded quartz veins also contain pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, and sphalerite. The primary ore structures include the anhedral–subhedral structure, xenomorphic granular structure, metasomatic structure, solid-solution-separation structure, poikilitic structure, etc. The ore structures mainly comprise massive structure, disseminated structure, veined-network structure, and stripe structure with gold enrichment.
Hosted rock alterations mainly include silicification, pyritization, sericitization, chloritization, and carbonation. Among these alterations, silicification and pyritization are closely associated with gold mineralization. Pyrite is an important gold-bearing mineral (Figure 3f,g) consisting of coarse- and fine-grained pyrite distinguished by degrees of crystallization. Coarse-grained pyrite, formed in the early stage of hydrothermal metallogenesis, is dark-yellow-colored, highly euhedral and poorly gold-bearing. By contrast, fine-grained pyrite, formed in the middle and late stages of hydrothermal metallogenesis, is light-yellow-colored, mainly subhedral-hypidiomorphic, and rich in gold.
Based on investigations of the veins carried out during fieldwork and from ore photomicrographs (Figure 3a–i), the metallogenic period can be divided into three stages. Stage I can be regarded as the quartz–pyrite stage, with quartz and coarse-grained pyrite formed and with weak gold mineralization. Stage II is the quartz–polymetallic sulfide stage, with quartz, pyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, and gold, as well as a minor amount of ankerite (Figure 3c). The quartz veins have black bands and the grain size of the quartz decreases (Figure 3e–i). Furthermore, the pyrite is mostly in a subhedral granular structure (Figure 3e,g,i), and most of the arsenopyrite is acicular and arranged in long columns (Figure 3h). The structure of the arsenopyrite is mainly automorphic in the early stage, while that in the late stage is generally semi-self-shaped and fine-grained. The arsenopyrite-metasomatized pyrite can be observed under the microscope (Figure 3i). The degree of gold mineralization is higher in Stage II. Quartz, ankerite, and pyrite in minor amounts are formed during Stage III, which is then known as the quartz–ankerite stage. Veins which are ore-barren are commonly cut Stage II veins (Figure 3d). The paragenetic sequence is illustrated in Figure 4.
4. Sampling and Analytical Methods
Eighteen and sixteen samples were obtained from four drill holes and an exploration tunnel, respectively, during the field geological investigation of the present work. The sampling information and analysis methods are presented in Table 1.
4.1. Trace Element Analysis
In order to identify sources of gold, samples were grained to 74 μm. Trace elements in samples from veins and hosted rocks of the main metallogenic stages were analyzed by ICP-MS at Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology with an analytical precision of around 1%.
4.2. Sulfur Isotope Analysis
The observations from the fieldwork and photomicrographic study indicated that the pyrite was the foremost gold-bearing mineral. Samples of the pyrite from the quartz veins at different metallogenic stages were thus selected for sulfur isotope analysis. This was performed using the direct-oxidation method using a MAT 253 mass spectrometer. The analysis was conducted at the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology with an analytical precision of ±0.2‰.
4.3. Fluid Inclusions Microthermometry
To explore the metallogenic conditions at different mineralization stages, fluid inclusion microthermometry was performed in quartz samples using a Linkam THMS-600 microthermometer at the Key Laboratory of Non-ferrous Metallogenic Prognosis, Ministry of Education, School of Geosciences and Information Physics, Central South University. Before the measurements were made, the samples were double-side polished to a thickness of 0.06–0.08 mm. The instrument was calibrated with synthetic inclusion (international standard sample) before testing. The measuring range was from −196 to 600 °C. Uncertainties of the measurements were ±0.1 °C and ±1 °C in temperature ranges of <30 °C and <600 °C, respectively. The heating/freezing rate was 10–20 °C/min during the initial runs, which was reduced to 0.2 °C/min near the phase transformation.
5. Results
5.1. Trace Element Geochemistry
Table 2 shows that the total amount of rare earth elements (REEs) was 72.62–198.83 ppm, with the contents of light rare earth elements (LREEs) and Heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) ranging from 64.73–171.35 ppm and 7.89–27.48 ppm, respectively. The LREE/HREE, La(N)/Sm(N), and Gd(N)/Yb(N) ratios were 6.24–11.58, 2.03–4.68, and 1.43–2.96, respectively, indicating an enrichment of LREEs and a depletion of HREEs. Most of the samples displayed moderately negative Eu anomalies and no Ce anomalies (Figure 4). The REE content of the ores during Stage III was significantly lower than that in the Stage I and II ores, however, no significant differences were identified for the other elements.
As depicted in Figure 5, the REE profiles of both the hosted rocks (X4 and X6) and the ore were right-inclined and nearly parallel. The values of LREE/HREE, La(N)/Sm(N), Gd(N)/Yb(N), δEu, and δCe for the samples of hosted rock were similar to those of the ore samples. The samples of the rocks and ore were characterized by enrichment in LREE, depletion in HREE, and non-anomalies in Ce. The primitive mantle-normalized trace element distribution patterns of the ore and hosted rocks were right-inclined (Figure 6). The high field strength element (HFSE) was relatively depleted, especially in Nb and Ta. However, the large ion lithophile element (LILE) was enriched with Pb, displaying a positive anomaly.
5.2. Sulfur Isotope Compositions
The sulfur isotope compositions of the pyrite samples from the Xiaojiashan deposit in different metallogenic stages and those from the Lengjiaxi Group are presented in Table 3. The δ34SVCDT values of the ore samples ranged from −3.1 to −8.0‰. It is also shown in Table 3 that the sulfur isotope composition of pyrite from the ore samples X1–X11 were similar to the compositions of the samples from the Yanlinsi gold deposit (−10.34~+6.04 [21,22]), the Zhengchong deposit (−8.9~−0.1 [14]), and the Lengjiaxi Group in this area (−13.10 to −5.93‰ [13,21,40]).
5.3. Fluid Inclusion Microthermometry
Figure 3 and Figure 7 show some microphotographs of polished slides of samples of the quartz from the Xiaojiashan deposit. Veinlets and veins hosted by the quartz of ore zones, and the fluid inclusions in quartz are distinguishably different quartz generations. To summarize the fluid inclusion study results: the fluid inclusions [41] in the quartz were difficult to study due to their small size (mostly 4.0–6.5 μm), they were all composed of vapor–liquid two–phase and liquid-rich fluid inclusions at room temperature, with the vapor phase accounting for 5–40 vol.% (mostly 20–30 vol.%) (Appendix A, Table 4). The shapes of the inclusions were nearly circular and elliptical, slightly rectangular, triangular, and diamond, as well as rather irregular.
The fluid inclusions in Stage I were studied in veinlets and euhedral crystals, where they were distributed either in clusters or isolated, suggesting their primary nature. The primary fluid inclusions in the samples were 3.5–8.6 μm (mostly 4.0–6.5 μm, as shown in Table 4, Figure 7a). They homogenized to liquid mostly in between 186 and 343 °C, with an average of 274 °C. The freezing temperature and the initial melting temperature of the inclusions were −6.8–−1.0 °C, and −23–−20 °C, respectively. These were around −21 °C, suggesting that they were H2O-NaCl system inclusions. The salinity of the primary inclusions was 1.7–10.2 wt.% NaCl based on Tm (−6.8–−1.0 °C) (Table 4 and Table A1).
The fluid inclusions in Stage II (Figure 7b) were measured in veinlets and euhedral crystals. The primary inclusions were small (3.8–9.0 μm) and mostly occurred in rows along fractures; the secondary and pseudo-secondary inclusions are relatively rare. Their morphology, size, freezing temperature (−7.6–−0.5°C) and initial melting temperature (−25–−20°C) are similar to those of Stage I. However, their homogenization temperatures (137–314°C, with an average of 237 °C) (Table 4 and Table A2) were lower than those of most primary inclusions in Stage I.
The fluid inclusions in Stage III (Figure 7c) were studied in veinlets and veins. The proportion accounted for by the vapor phase (5–35 vol.%, mostly 15–25 vol.%) decreased (Table 4 and Table A3). Their morphology, size (3.8–8.5 μm), freezing temperature (−7.8–−0.7 °C), and initial melting temperature (−25–−21 °C) were similar to those of Stages I and II. However, their homogenization temperatures (122–268 °C, with an average of 198 °C) were lower than those of most primary inclusions in Stages I and II.
The initial melting temperature of inclusions in Stages I, II, and III were around −21 °C, suggesting that the ore-forming fluids comprised a H2O-NaCl system. This suggests that the fluids involved in the hydrothermal episodes were similar.
The salinity of the fluid inclusions (ω, wt%) was calculated using Equation (1) [42].
ω, wt% = 1.78θ − 0.0442θ2 + 0.000557θ3
In Equation (1): θ is the depression of the freezing temperature in degrees Celsius.
The calculated values for the salinity of the fluid inclusions ranged from 5.6 to 11.2%, 4.2 to 11.2%, and 4.2 to 8.4% for Stages I, II, and III, respectively (Figure 8b).
Figure 8 and Figure 9 show that the temperature of the ore-forming fluid is highest during mineralization stage I, and the salinity of the ore-forming fluid is highest during mineralization stage II. In addition, a weak positive relationship between the homogenization temperatures and the salinity was identified for each stage of the fluid inclusions. The ore-forming fluid in this study may be a relatively hot and saline fluid, and the drop (from Stages II to III) in salinity and temperature may have been caused by the addition of some colder and less saline fluid.
6. Discussion
6.1. Source of Ore-Forming Material
The contents of Au, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Sb in the rocks of the Lengjiaxi Group in northeastern Hunan were 1.65, 1.68, 1.93, 1.70, 22.89 and 8.38 times the average concentrations of the upper crust, respectively (Table 5) [43,44]. The ore bodies of the Xiaojiashan gold deposit occur in the epi-metamorphic rocks of the Lengjiaxi Group. Fresh, unaltered, and mineralized samples of the Lengjiaxi Group’s epi-metamorphic sandstone along with slate from the Yanlinsi ore section and its periphery were collected by Huang et al. [37]. In northeastern Hunan, Au, Cu, Zn and As were measured with varying degrees of enrichment. Both showed that the Lengjiaxi Formation is a rich source of Au. Figure 5 depicts the patterns of the chondrite-normalized REE distribution for the hosted rocks and ore, which were similar to those of the Lengjiaxi Group [39]. These features suggest that the Lengjiaxi Group provided a material source for mineralization.
Original metamorphic rocks can be restored using rock-geochemical methods. The La/Yb-REE diagram is often used to discuss rock types and material sources due to its low level of errors and high accuracy [46,47]. The La(N)/Yb(N) versus ΣREE diagram (Figure 10) demonstrates sample plots within the field of sedimentary rock and continental tholeiitic, signifying that the original rocks of Stages I and II and the hosted rocks were likely to have been sedimentary rock mixed with magmatic rock.
The δ34S values of the sulfide can be approximately regarded as the δ34S∑ values of the ore-forming fluid when the mineral assemblage lacks sulfate [48]. The Xiaojiashan gold deposit possesses barren sulfate minerals, consisting of large amounts of pyrite, as well as small amounts of chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, and galena. Therefore, the value of δ34S in the pyrite is approximately equal to that in the ore-forming fluid.
The δ34S values of the pyrite in Stage I were low (−8.0‰), with similar values to the test samples from Xiaojiashan [18,28] and the Lengjiaxi Group in northeastern Hunan [13,21,40]. Furthermore, the pyrite in Stage I contained less 34S than the magmatic sulfur (δ34S = 0 ± 3‰) [49] from the same region (Figure 11 and Table 3). This indicates that the source of pyrite in Stage I was probably metamorphic sulfur, which is sourced from the metamorphism of sedimentary strata. The pyrite in Stage II and III had similar δ 34S values, which were also similar to the δ34S values from Xiaojiashan (Figure 11 and Table 3) [18,28], Yanlinsi [21,22], and Zhengchong [14]. The pyrite in Stages II and III contained more 34S than the Lengjiaxi Group in northeastern Hunan [13,21,40]. This indicates that there was an external magmatic sulfur source (δ34S = 0 ± 3‰) [49], which may have migrated from the concealed plutons resulting from the magnetic anomaly beneath the Zhengchong–Xiaojiashan–Yanlinsi goldfield [18,37]. The trace element compositions and ratios of pyrite also suggest that the sulfur source and composition may have shifted from metamorphic (Stage I) to magmatic (Stage II) [18].
It is thus estimated that the gold in Xiaojiashan was from the Lengjiaxi Formation, and that magmatic materials were added to the mineralization.
6.2. Fluid Evolution
It is known that fluid inclusions in minerals play an important role in the study of the ore-forming process, as these inclusions can reflect the properties of ore-forming fluid and invert the ore-forming process [50,51]. The vapor–liquid two-phase inclusions were found to develop in the hydrothermal quartz veins of the Xiaojiashan deposit, wherein no other inclusion types were discovered. The values of the homogenization temperature for the inclusions range mostly from 180 to 300 °C. This temperature range implies that the inclusions belonged to a hydrothermal solution with medium–low temperatures. The calculated salinity mainly varied from 4.2 to 11.2 % (wt% NaCl, eq), and no salt crystal was found in the inclusions, indicating a medium–low salinity for the ore-forming fluids. It is therefore considered that the ore-forming fluid of the Xiaojiashan gold deposit had a medium–low temperature and salinity range.
From the La(N)/Yb(N) versus ΣREE diagram, the temperature and salinity diagram, and the δ34S values of the pyrite, it can be shown that the ore-forming hydrothermal fluids were metamorphic–hydrothermal, with Au extracted from the strata during its migration in Stage I. According to the δ34S values of the pyrite in Stages II and III, which contained a higher value of 34S than that of the Lengjiaxi Group in northeastern Hunan, it was found that the ore-forming hydrothermal fluids may have shifted to the magmatic stage (Stages II and III) from the metamorphic stage (Stage I). A similar fluid-evolution process in vein-hosted gold deposits has also been proposed in many orogenic gold deposits worldwide, such as the gold deposit in northeastern Hunan, China [13] and the Lac Herbin deposit in Canada [52].
7. Conclusions
The following conclusions were reached from the evaluation and discussion of the results obtained from the present work:
(1) The Lengjiaxi Group and magmatic components provided the ore-forming materials.
(2) The ore-forming hydrothermal fluids of the Xiaojiashan gold deposit were metamorphic hydrothermal in Stage I, which may have been derived from the metamorphism of the strata, and then shifted to magmatic–hydrothermal in Stages II and III. For the Xiaojiashan gold deposit, the temperature and salinity of the ore-forming fluids were at a medium–low level.
(3) The temperature and salinity of the ore-forming fluid decreased during the metallogenic epoch, which might have been a result of the gradually reduced ore-forming materials and mineralization, along with the addition of groundwater.
Author Contributions
Fieldwork: D.H. and S.L.; fluid inclusions microthermometry: D.H., S.L. and L.L.; writing—original draft preparation: D.H. and C.H.; writing—review and editing: H.Q. and B.T.; funding acquisition, L.L., C.H. and H.Q. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This study was supported by National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFC3702300), Natural Science Foundation of China (NO. 52004207, 51904225 and 51904224), Science and Technology Program of Shaanxi (2020JQ-748), Scientific Research Program funded by Xi’an Science and Technology Bureau (22GXFW0064), Scientific Research Project of Youth Team for Innovation of Construction Science of Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education (No. 21JP077) and Education Program of Shaanxi (21JK0766).
Acknowledgments
Authors are highly indebted to Qixing Yang, retired from The Division of Minerals and Metallurgical Engineering in Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural resources engineering at Luleå University of Technology, in Luleå, Sweden for proofreading the manuscript and providing some suggests regarding the language improvement.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Table A1.
Microthermometry results of primary fluid inclusions in Stage I of Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Table A1.
Microthermometry results of primary fluid inclusions in Stage I of Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
| No. | Host Mineral | Size (μm) | Vapor (%) | Th (°C) | Tm (°C) | Ti (°C) | Salinity (wt% NaCl eq) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| X1 | Qz | 7.5 | 40 | 186 | −1.9 | −20 | 3.2 |
| Qz | 5.8 | 35 | 196 | −1.2 | −22 | 2.0 | |
| Qz | 8.0 | 40 | 243 | −2.6 | −20 | 4.3 | |
| Qz | 4.8 | 30 | 206 | −1.7 | −22 | 2.9 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 35 | 257 | −3.6 | −21 | 5.8 | |
| Qz | 7.8 | 45 | 251 | −2.9 | −20 | 4.8 | |
| Qz | 4.8 | 25 | 232 | −2.6 | −20 | 4.3 | |
| Qz | 5.5 | 20 | 227 | −2.3 | −21 | 3.8 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 30 | 257 | −2.8 | −20 | 4.6 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 35 | 277 | −5.7 | −21 | 8.8 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 25 | 286 | −4.7 | −22 | 7.4 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 20 | 332 | −6.8 | −20 | 10.2 | |
| Qz | 5.4 | 25 | 331 | −6.6 | −21 | 9.9 | |
| Qz | 5.5 | 30 | 330 | −6.7 | −22 | 10.1 | |
| Qz | 5.2 | 30 | 288 | −5.0 | −20 | 7.8 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 25 | 211 | −2.3 | −22 | 3.8 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 15 | 273 | −4.0 | −21 | 6.4 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 20 | 274 | −4.3 | −22 | 6.8 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 30 | 283 | −5.2 | −20 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 4.5 | 10 | 293 | −5.2 | −21 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 4.0 | 25 | 276 | −4.3 | −22 | 6.8 | |
| Qz | 4.3 | 20 | 279 | −4.2 | −20 | 6.7 | |
| X2 | Qz | 7.6 | 30 | 219 | −1.0 | −23 | 1.7 |
| Qz | 6.8 | 35 | 246 | −2.4 | −22 | 4.5 | |
| Qz | 8.2 | 40 | 226 | −2.4 | −20 | 4.0 | |
| Qz | 6.3 | 20 | 289 | −5.4 | −22 | 8.4 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 30 | 290 | −5.2 | −21 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 5.5 | 20 | 259 | −3.0 | −20 | 4.9 | |
| Qz | 4.2 | 25 | 286 | −5.5 | −23 | 8.5 | |
| Qz | 8.6 | 30 | 276 | −5.8 | −22 | 8.9 | |
| Qz | 7.7 | 35 | 263 | −3.8 | −21 | 6.1 | |
| Qz | 7.2 | 30 | 270 | −4.2 | −20 | 6.7 | |
| Qz | 6.7 | 25 | 255 | −2.8 | −22 | 4.6 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 30 | 282 | −4.5 | −21 | 7.1 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 20 | 283 | −4.8 | −23 | 7.5 | |
| Qz | 6.8 | 15 | 260 | −3.5 | −20 | 5.7 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 30 | 271 | −4.0 | −22 | 6.4 | |
| Qz | 4.3 | 25 | 343 | −6.4 | −21 | 9.7 | |
| Qz | 4.2 | 45 | 281 | −5.2 | −20 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 3.9 | 35 | 300 | −6.5 | −21 | 9.8 | |
| Qz | 3.5 | 30 | 321 | −6.5 | −22 | 9.8 | |
| Qz | 6.7 | 35 | 275 | −5.3 | −21 | 8.2 | |
| Qz | 6.5 | 40 | 301 | −5.6 | −20 | 8.6 | |
| Qz | 6.9 | 30 | 304 | −6.2 | −22 | 9.4 | |
| Qz | 5.2 | 35 | 305 | −6.4 | −20 | 9.7 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 30 | 306 | −6.3 | −21 | 9.6 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 20 | 308 | −6.6 | −22 | 9.9 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 35 | 309 | −6.4 | −22 | 9.7 | |
| Qz | 6.0 | 30 | 309 | −6.3 | −23 | 9.6 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 25 | 310 | −6.5 | −20 | 9.8 | |
| Qz | 5.3 | 20 | 302 | −6.5 | −21 | 9.8 | |
| X1′ | Qz | 4.3 | 10 | 286 | −3.6 | 5.8 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 10 | 268 | −1.9 | −22 | 3.2 | |
| Qz | 4.6 | 15 | 274 | −5.3 | 8.2 | ||
| Qz | 4.9 | 15 | 272 | −5.6 | −21 | 8.6 | |
| Qz | 5.1 | 10 | 228 | −4.7 | 7.4 | ||
| Qz | 6.3 | 10 | 256 | −4.6 | −20 | 7.3 | |
| Qz | 5.0 | 10 | 265 | −6.1 | 9.3 |
Table A2.
Microthermometry results of primary fluid inclusions in Stage II of Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Table A2.
Microthermometry results of primary fluid inclusions in Stage II of Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
| No. | Host Mineral | Size (μm) | Vapor (%) | Th (°C) | Tm (°C) | Ti (°C) | Salinity (wt% NaCl eq) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| X3 | Qz | 6.8 | 30 | 169 | −0.5 | −22 | 0.8 |
| Qz | 5.9 | 25 | 180 | −0.7 | −20 | 1.2 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 20 | 197 | −3.0 | −21 | 4.9 | |
| Qz | 7.3 | 30 | 273 | −6.1 | −20 | 9.3 | |
| Qz | 7.0 | 30 | 181 | −1.8 | −23 | 3.0 | |
| Qz | 6.8 | 20 | 201 | −3.1 | −20 | 5.1 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 15 | 240 | −4.6 | −22 | 7.3 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 20 | 308 | −6.1 | −21 | 9.3 | |
| Qz | 6.0 | 10 | 270 | −5.5 | −20 | 8.5 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 30 | 310 | −6.1 | −23 | 9.3 | |
| Qz | 6.8 | 25 | 314 | −6.0 | −21 | 9.2 | |
| Qz | 7.5 | 20 | 241 | −5.0 | −23 | 7.8 | |
| Qz | 6.5 | 25 | 201 | −3.2 | −20 | 5.2 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 20 | 231 | −4.3 | −22 | 6.8 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 15 | 237 | −4.4 | −21 | 7.0 | |
| Qz | 4.8 | 20 | 229 | −4.2 | −22 | 6.7 | |
| Qz | 4.5 | 15 | 238 | −4.2 | −22 | 6.7 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 25 | 252 | −5.6 | −20 | 8.6 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 20 | 242 | −5.1 | −21 | 8.0 | |
| X5 | Qz | 4.8 | 30 | 167 | −1.4 | −22 | 2.4 |
| Qz | 4.6 | 30 | 171 | −0.8 | −23 | 1.4 | |
| Qz | 4.0 | 25 | 271 | −6.0 | −20 | 9.2 | |
| Qz | 6.3 | 35 | 176 | −0.9 | −21 | 1.5 | |
| Qz | 6.9 | 20 | 228 | −4.2 | −23 | 6.7 | |
| Qz | 4.5 | 10 | 187 | −1.0 | −22 | 1.7 | |
| Qz | 3.8 | 20 | 230 | −4.3 | −20 | 6.8 | |
| Qz | 4.3 | 25 | 296 | −5.9 | −23 | 9.0 | |
| Qz | 8.4 | 20 | 239 | −4.4 | −21 | 7.0 | |
| Qz | 9.0 | 25 | 204 | −3.4 | −22 | 5.5 | |
| Qz | 8.1 | 25 | 230 | −4.2 | −23 | 6.7 | |
| Qz | 6.7 | 30 | 245 | −5.4 | −20 | 8.4 | |
| Qz | 6.9 | 20 | 247 | −5.2 | −23 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 5.6 | 35 | 216 | −3.9 | −22 | 6.3 | |
| Qz | 4.8 | 40 | 240 | −4.4 | −20 | 7.0 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 20 | 193 | −3.0 | −21 | 4.9 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 25 | 225 | −4.1 | −23 | 6.5 | |
| Qz | 5.1 | 20 | 251 | −5.7 | −22 | 8.8 | |
| X7 | Qz | 6.2 | 20 | 240 | −4.7 | −20 | 7.4 |
| Qz | 5.8 | 20 | 183 | −2.6 | −24 | 4.3 | |
| Qz | 5.4 | 25 | 186 | −2.3 | −21 | 3.8 | |
| Qz | 4.5 | 20 | 302 | −6.9 | −23 | 10.3 | |
| Qz | 5.5 | 25 | 302 | −6.8 | −21 | 10.2 | |
| Qz | 7.2 | 20 | 282 | −6.8 | −24 | 10.2 | |
| Qz | 6.5 | 25 | 239 | −4.5 | −20 | 7.1 | |
| Qz | 5.4 | 20 | 300 | −6.8 | −21 | 10.2 | |
| Qz | 5.1 | 15 | 300 | −6.7 | −22 | 10.1 | |
| Qz | 4.5 | 10 | 301 | −6.8 | −20 | 10.2 | |
| Qz | 7.5 | 25 | 190 | −2.7 | −24 | 4.4 | |
| Qz | 7.0 | 20 | 215 | −4.0 | −21 | 6.4 | |
| Qz | 6.8 | 35 | 278 | −6.5 | −22 | 9.8 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 40 | 207 | −3.2 | −23 | 5.2 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 20 | 250 | −5.5 | −24 | 8.5 | |
| Qz | 5.3 | 20 | 208 | −3.3 | −20 | 5.4 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 30 | 214 | −3.6 | −24 | 5.8 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 25 | 281 | −6.7 | −21 | 10.1 | |
| Qz | 6.3 | 20 | 216 | −3.8 | −22 | 6.1 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 25 | 244 | −5.2 | −24 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 6.0 | 20 | 279 | −6.5 | −24 | 9.8 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 20 | 280 | −6.8 | −20 | 10.2 | |
| Qz | 6.8 | 25 | 240 | −4.5 | −20 | 7.1 | |
| Qz | 5.9 | 25 | 276 | −6.1 | −22 | 9.3 | |
| X8 | Qz | 6.7 | 15 | 150 | −1.7 | −21 | 2.9 |
| Qz | 7.4 | 10 | 137 | −1.3 | −24 | 2.2 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 20 | 183 | −1.9 | −20 | 3.2 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 5 | 138 | −1.6 | −20 | 2.7 | |
| Qz | 4.0 | 20 | 151 | −1.6 | −22 | 2.7 | |
| Qz | 4.5 | 25 | 178 | −1.7 | −21 | 2.9 | |
| Qz | 8.4 | 30 | 153 | −1.7 | −23 | 2.9 | |
| Qz | 8.1 | 20 | 218 | −3.9 | −20 | 6.3 | |
| Qz | 8.6 | 35 | 288 | −5.8 | −20 | 8.9 | |
| Qz | 6.5 | 45 | 281 | −5.9 | −21 | 9.0 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 20 | 220 | −4.0 | −24 | 6.4 | |
| Qz | 7.4 | 25 | 241 | −5.0 | −22 | 7.8 | |
| Qz | 6.8 | 30 | 223 | −4.0 | −25 | 6.4 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 20 | 227 | −4.1 | −23 | 6.5 | |
| Qz | 7.9 | 30 | 243 | −5.2 | −21 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 7.0 | 25 | 246 | −5.4 | −22 | 8.4 | |
| Qz | 6.8 | 30 | 256 | −5.5 | −20 | 8.5 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 35 | 248 | −5.3 | −20 | 8.2 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 30 | 249 | −5.4 | −22 | 8.4 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 25 | 270 | −5.8 | −21 | 8.9 | |
| X9 | Qz | 7.2 | 20 | 188 | −2.9 | −23 | 4.8 |
| Qz | 6.5 | 15 | 286 | −7.6 | −24 | 11.2 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 25 | 209 | −3.3 | −21 | 5.4 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 10 | 184 | −2.4 | −24 | 4.0 | |
| Qz | 4.6 | 5 | 211 | −3.5 | −20 | 5.7 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 20 | 213 | −3.6 | −22 | 5.8 | |
| Qz | 6.9 | 25 | 295 | −7.6 | −21 | 11.2 | |
| Qz | 7.2 | 20 | 270 | −6.8 | −20 | 10.2 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 30 | 293 | −7.6 | −24 | 11.2 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 35 | 291 | −7.6 | −22 | 11.2 | |
| Qz | 6.5 | 30 | 294 | −7.6 | −23 | 11.2 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 25 | 240 | −4.6 | −20 | 7.3 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 20 | 241 | −4.7 | −21 | 7.4 | |
| Qz | 8.7 | 15 | 241 | −4.8 | −23 | 7.5 | |
| Qz | 10.7 | 20 | 250 | −5.2 | −24 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 7.2 | 15 | 273 | −6.1 | −21 | 9.3 | |
| Qz | 6.8 | 20 | 250 | −5.5 | −23 | 8.5 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 25 | 277 | −6.5 | −20 | 9.8 | |
| Qz | 5.9 | 30 | 251 | −5.5 | −24 | 8.5 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 25 | 275 | −6.1 | −21 | 9.3 | |
| X3′ | Qz | 4.6 | 15 | 286 | −4.7 | 7.4 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 10 | 253 | −4.6 | −20 | 7.3 | |
| Qz | 5.1 | 15 | 267 | −4.1 | 6.5 | ||
| Qz | 6.2 | 20 | 250 | −4.8 | −22 | 7.5 | |
| Qz | 5.4 | 10 | 224 | −3.3 | 5.4 | ||
| Qz | 6.4 | 15 | 234 | −3.9 | −21 | 6.3 | |
| Qz | 5.7 | 10 | 212 | −3.9 | 6.3 | ||
| X5′ | Qz | 5.3 | 10 | 246 | −4.5 | 7.1 | |
| Qz | 4.1 | 15 | 226 | −3.5 | 5.7 | ||
| Qz | 6.5 | 5 | 237 | −4.1 | −20 | 6.5 | |
| Qz | 4.7 | 20 | 179 | −1.7 | 2.9 | ||
| Qz | 8.3 | 15 | 202 | −4.0 | −22 | 6.4 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 10 | 225 | −5.5 | −23 | 8.5 |
Table A3.
Microthermometry results of primary fluid inclusions in Stage III of Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Table A3.
Microthermometry results of primary fluid inclusions in Stage III of Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
| No. | Host Mineral | Size (μm) | Vapor (%) | Th (°C) | Tm (°C) | Ti (°C) | Salinity (wt% NaCl eq) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| X10 | Qz | 5.7 | 25 | 190 | −4.4 | −21 | 7.0 |
| Qz | 6.4 | 15 | 161 | −2.9 | −22 | 4.8 | |
| Qz | 7.1 | 10 | 145 | −1.0 | −22 | 1.7 | |
| Qz | 6.8 | 20 | 151 | −1.7 | −23 | 2.9 | |
| Qz | 6.5 | 20 | 251 | −7.6 | −21 | 11.2 | |
| Qz | 4.6 | 25 | 243 | −6.6 | −23 | 9.9 | |
| Qz | 4.2 | 20 | 249 | −7.3 | −22 | 10.8 | |
| Qz | 7.0 | 25 | 268 | −7.4 | −23 | 10.9 | |
| Qz | 6.7 | 20 | 240 | −6.1 | −23 | 9.3 | |
| Qz | 4.8 | 25 | 216 | −5.1 | −23 | 8.0 | |
| Qz | 7.6 | 15 | 193 | −4.6 | −22 | 7.3 | |
| Qz | 6.6 | 30 | 241 | −5.9 | −23 | 9.0 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 25 | 242 | −6.4 | −23 | 9.7 | |
| Qz | 4.7 | 25 | 188 | −4.0 | −21 | 6.4 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 25 | 201 | −4.8 | −23 | 7.5 | |
| Qz | 5.4 | 20 | 236 | −5.5 | −23 | 8.5 | |
| X11 | Qz | 6.5 | 25 | 180 | −1.4 | −22 | 2.4 |
| Qz | 5.7 | 30 | 179 | −3.0 | −24 | 4.9 | |
| Qz | 4.5 | 25 | 223 | −7.8 | −24 | 11.4 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 30 | 238 | −5.5 | −23 | 8.5 | |
| Qz | 7.0 | 20 | 181 | −3.3 | −25 | 5.4 | |
| Qz | 5.2 | 10 | 183 | −3.4 | −23 | 5.5 | |
| Qz | 4.8 | 5 | 201 | −4.7 | −21 | 7.4 | |
| Qz | 4.3 | 20 | 184 | −4.0 | −23 | 6.4 | |
| Qz | 7.2 | 25 | 186 | −3.6 | −22 | 5.8 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 20 | 211 | −3.8 | −23 | 7.4 | |
| Qz | 6.1 | 20 | 213 | −5.0 | −21 | 7.8 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 15 | 204 | −4.7 | −21 | 7.4 | |
| Qz | 4.6 | 20 | 226 | −5.4 | −23 | 8.4 | |
| Qz | 5.1 | 25 | 206 | −4.8 | −21 | 7.5 | |
| Qz | 4.9 | 20 | 197 | −4.7 | −23 | 7.4 | |
| X12 | Qz | 5.2 | 25 | 150 | −1.9 | −24 | 3.2 |
| Qz | 8.0 | 15 | 140 | −1.7 | −24 | 2.9 | |
| Qz | 7.6 | 20 | 147 | −1.6 | −23 | 2.7 | |
| Qz | 8.5 | 10 | 124 | −3.2 | −22 | 5.2 | |
| Qz | 7.8 | 20 | 122 | −0.7 | −21 | 1.2 | |
| Qz | 8.0 | 30 | 214 | −5.2 | −23 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 5.2 | 35 | 204 | −4.7 | −24 | 7.4 | |
| Qz | 3.8 | 20 | 215 | −4.9 | −21 | 7.7 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 15 | 160 | −2.8 | −23 | 4.6 | |
| Qz | 5.4 | 20 | 218 | −5.1 | −22 | 8.0 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 25 | 153 | −2.8 | −21 | 4.6 | |
| Qz | 7.1 | 30 | 169 | −3.2 | −24 | 5.2 | |
| Qz | 6.7 | 20 | 152 | −2.1 | −25 | 3.5 | |
| Qz | 5.8 | 25 | 167 | −3.0 | −23 | 4.9 | |
| Qz | 5.3 | 20 | 250 | −5.4 | −21 | 8.4 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 15 | 183 | −3.6 | −24 | 5.8 | |
| Qz | 6.2 | 20 | 239 | −5.3 | −25 | 8.2 | |
| Qz | 5.4 | 15 | 220 | −5.2 | −21 | 8.1 | |
| Qz | 5.2 | 20 | 187 | −4.2 | −25 | 6.7 | |
| X10′ | Qz | 4.1 | 20 | 185 | −1.4 | 2.4 | |
| Qz | 6.4 | 15 | 169 | −1.9 | 3.2 | ||
| Qz | 5.1 | 10 | 206 | −4.0 | 6.4 | ||
| Qz | 5.3 | 15 | 190 | −5.3 | −22 | 8.2 | |
| Qz | 4.3 | 10 | 216 | −5.3 | 8.2 | ||
| Qz | 5.6 | 20 | 223 | −6.1 | 9.3 | ||
| Qz | 4.8 | 15 | 201 | −2.8 | 4.6 |
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Figure 1.
Geological map of the region showing distribution of gold deposits. (a) Simplified tectonic map of Qinzhou-Hangzhou mineralization belt. (b) Sketched geological map of northeastern Hunan (modified after [13]).
Figure 1.
Geological map of the region showing distribution of gold deposits. (a) Simplified tectonic map of Qinzhou-Hangzhou mineralization belt. (b) Sketched geological map of northeastern Hunan (modified after [13]).
Figure 2.
Schematic geological map of the Xiaojiashan deposit.
Figure 3.
Ore features and photomicrographs of Xiaojiashan gold deposit. (a) Stage I smoky-gray quartz veins and alteration halo. (b) Stage II quartz vein cut stage I quartz vein. (c) Stage II sinuous smoky-gray quartz vein and alteration halo with disseminated pyrite and arsenopyrite. (d) Stage III quartz vein cut stage II quartz vein. (e) Silicic alterations with disseminated pyrite and arsenopyrite related to gold mineralization. (f) Stage II quartz vein overprinted stage I quartz vein. (g) Stage III quartz vein overprinted stage II quartz vein. (h) Silicic alterations with disseminated arsenopyrite related to gold mineralization in stage II. (i) Pyritizat alterations with disseminated arsenopyrite related to gold mineralization in stage II. Abbreviations: Apy, Arsenopyrite; Ccp, Chalcopyrite; Gl, Gold; Py, Pyrite; Qz, Quartz; Sp, Sphalerite.
Figure 3.
Ore features and photomicrographs of Xiaojiashan gold deposit. (a) Stage I smoky-gray quartz veins and alteration halo. (b) Stage II quartz vein cut stage I quartz vein. (c) Stage II sinuous smoky-gray quartz vein and alteration halo with disseminated pyrite and arsenopyrite. (d) Stage III quartz vein cut stage II quartz vein. (e) Silicic alterations with disseminated pyrite and arsenopyrite related to gold mineralization. (f) Stage II quartz vein overprinted stage I quartz vein. (g) Stage III quartz vein overprinted stage II quartz vein. (h) Silicic alterations with disseminated arsenopyrite related to gold mineralization in stage II. (i) Pyritizat alterations with disseminated arsenopyrite related to gold mineralization in stage II. Abbreviations: Apy, Arsenopyrite; Ccp, Chalcopyrite; Gl, Gold; Py, Pyrite; Qz, Quartz; Sp, Sphalerite.
Figure 4.
Mineral paragenetic sequence for the Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Figure 5.
Chondrite-normalized REE distribution patterns of hosted rocks and ore. (Lengjiaxi Group modified after [39]).
Figure 5.
Chondrite-normalized REE distribution patterns of hosted rocks and ore. (Lengjiaxi Group modified after [39]).
Figure 6.
Primitive mantle-normalized trace element distribution patterns of ore from Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Figure 6.
Primitive mantle-normalized trace element distribution patterns of ore from Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Figure 7.
Photomicrograph of fluid inclusions in quartz from Stages I (a), II (b), and III (c) in Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Figure 7.
Photomicrograph of fluid inclusions in quartz from Stages I (a), II (b), and III (c) in Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Figure 8.
Histograms of homogenization temperature (a) and salinity (b) of fluid inclusions in Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Figure 8.
Histograms of homogenization temperature (a) and salinity (b) of fluid inclusions in Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
Figure 9.
Diagram of temperature and salinity in Xiaojiashan gold deposit. The data of Stages I-1, II-1 and III-1 are from [30].
Figure 9.
Diagram of temperature and salinity in Xiaojiashan gold deposit. The data of Stages I-1, II-1 and III-1 are from [30].
Figure 10.
La/Yb-REE diagram for Xiaojiashan gold deposit (modified after [46]). 1. Chondrite; 2. Oceanic tholeiite; 3. Continental tholeiitic; 4. Alkalic basalt; 5. Granite; 6. Kimberlite; 7. Carbonatite; 8. Sedimentary rocks.
Figure 10.
La/Yb-REE diagram for Xiaojiashan gold deposit (modified after [46]). 1. Chondrite; 2. Oceanic tholeiite; 3. Continental tholeiitic; 4. Alkalic basalt; 5. Granite; 6. Kimberlite; 7. Carbonatite; 8. Sedimentary rocks.
Figure 11.
S isotopic compositions of pyrite and granodiorite from regional gold deposits. Sulfur isotope data of the Lengjiaxi Group [13,21,40], Yanlinsi [21,22], Zhengchong [14], Stages I and II [18], Xiaojiashan [28], and Zhengchong granodiorite [14] are shown for comparison.
Table 1.
Analyses and sampling localities.
| Lithology | Sampling Position | Stage | Testing | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| X1 | Quartz associated with pyrite | Drillhole | Stage I | Trace, S isotope, Temperature |
| X2 | quartz | Exploration tunnel | Trace, Temperature | |
| X3 | Quartz associated with sulfide | Drillhole | Stage II | Trace, S isotope, Temperature |
| X5 | Quartz associated with pyrite | Drillhole | Trace, S isotope, Temperature | |
| X7 | Quartz associated with sulfide | Exploration tunnel | Trace, S isotope, Temperature | |
| X8 | Quartz associated with sulfide | Exploration tunnel | Temperature | |
| X9 | Quartz associated with sulfide | Exploration tunnel | Temperature | |
| X10 | Quartz associated with pyrite | Drillhole | Stage III | Trace, S isotope, Temperature |
| X11 | Quartz associated with ankerite | Exploration tunnel | Trace, S isotope, Temperature | |
| X12 | Quartz associated with ankerite | Exploration tunnel | Temperature | |
| X4 | Sericite slate (X5 hanging -wall) | Drillhole | Hosted rock | Trace |
| X6 | Sandy slate (X5 foot -wall) | Drillhole | Trace |
Table 2.
Trace element contents (ppm) and parameters in Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
| X1 | X2 | X3 | X4 | X5 | X6 | X7 | X10 | X11 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| V | 22 | 93 | 64 | 117 | 120 | 86 | 7 | 13 | 15 |
| Cr | 90 | 90 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 70 | 90 | 90 | 110 |
| Co | 3.7 | 13.2 | 7.9 | 6.9 | 15.8 | 9.3 | 2.0 | 2.5 | 3.1 |
| Ni | 17.7 | 27.0 | 19.2 | 17.2 | 35.9 | 22.6 | 5.0 | 8.4 | 8.5 |
| Cu | 27.8 | 7.4 | 20.4 | 38.2 | 36.4 | 42.3 | 6.7 | 120.5 | 175.0 |
| Zn | 33 | 114 | 39 | 96 | 95 | 89 | 35 | 760 | 332 |
| As | 2120 | 88.8 | 161.5 | 4370 | 64.7 | 228 | 3700 | 4170 | 9350 |
| Rb | 26.4 | 150.0 | 109.0 | 246 | 185.0 | 143.0 | 17.0 | 21.5 | 27.4 |
| Sr | 170.0 | 155.0 | 116.5 | 58.5 | 120.0 | 130.0 | 10.8 | 90.7 | 45.9 |
| P | 210 | 1290 | 410 | 470 | 580 | 560 | 100 | 800 | 40 |
| Y | 6.7 | 13.6 | 10.1 | 11.3 | 10.9 | 11.5 | 1.0 | 4.2 | 2.2 |
| Zr | 67.5 | 148.0 | 105.5 | 171.5 | 138.5 | 117.0 | 12.3 | 16.9 | 21.5 |
| Nb | 2.5 | 11.2 | 8.1 | 6.1 | 10.3 | 9.5 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 2.0 |
| Sb | 29.3 | 2.64 | 3.87 | 5.85 | 4.00 | 9.85 | 8.77 | 72.7 | 78.8 |
| Cs | 2.68 | 8.99 | 5.93 | 15.45 | 11.05 | 7.79 | 1.24 | 1.29 | 1.56 |
| Ba | 90 | 560 | 320 | 640 | 570 | 360 | 40 | 50 | 70 |
| La | 14.3 | 30.9 | 29.1 | 33.5 | 33.1 | 28.1 | 2.7 | 4.9 | 6.0 |
| Ce | 29.3 | 71.1 | 62.8 | 74.9 | 72.6 | 61.0 | 5.79 | 11.85 | 13.25 |
| Pr | 3.33 | 9.19 | 7.66 | 8.70 | 8.62 | 7.18 | 0.62 | 1.60 | 1.49 |
| Nd | 12.5 | 34.8 | 28.2 | 32.0 | 31.9 | 27.0 | 2.4 | 6.6 | 5.5 |
| Sm | 2.75 | 7.55 | 5.77 | 6.46 | 6.91 | 5.71 | 0.40 | 1.94 | 1.01 |
| Eu | 0.65 | 1.71 | 1.18 | 1.27 | 1.30 | 1.12 | 0.14 | 0.84 | 0.19 |
| Gd | 2.58 | 7.73 | 4.79 | 6.27 | 5.92 | 5.36 | 0.32 | 1.86 | 0.78 |
| Tb | 0.36 | 1.17 | 0.67 | 0.92 | 0.85 | 0.80 | 0.03 | 0.22 | 0.09 |
| Dy | 2.09 | 7.32 | 4.33 | 6.11 | 5.53 | 4.85 | 0.28 | 1.12 | 0.69 |
| Ho | 0.41 | 1.53 | 0.91 | 1.23 | 1.15 | 1.03 | 0.06 | 0.24 | 0.15 |
| Er | 1.14 | 4.26 | 2.46 | 3.87 | 3.19 | 2.96 | 0.15 | 0.54 | 0.42 |
| Tm | 0.14 | 0.62 | 0.35 | 0.55 | 0.48 | 0.44 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.06 |
| Yb | 1.02 | 4.22 | 2.52 | 3.37 | 3.07 | 2.89 | 0.18 | 0.52 | 0.45 |
| Lu | 0.15 | 0.63 | 0.37 | 0.51 | 0.47 | 0.44 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.05 |
| Hf | 1.8 | 6.5 | 5.0 | 5.4 | 5.1 | 4.9 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.7 |
| Ta | 0.3 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 |
| Au | 0.775 | 0.074 | 0.012 | 0.587 | 0.007 | 0.09 | 4.12 | 6.08 | 10 |
| Pb | 61.7 | 24.6 | 13.8 | 12.5 | 26.8 | 31.7 | 441 | 1525 | 459 |
| Th | 4.9 | 12.5 | 10.6 | 15.1 | 14.8 | 12.6 | 1.0 | 1.7 | 2.0 |
| U | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.3 | 2.8 | 3.2 | 2.4 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.6 |
| ΣREE | 72.62 | 198.83 | 159.21 | 180.76 | 182.99 | 153.48 | 13.21 | 35.22 | 31.38 |
| LREE | 64.73 | 171.35 | 142.81 | 157.93 | 162.33 | 134.71 | 12.16 | 30.58 | 28.69 |
| HREE | 7.89 | 27.48 | 16.4 | 22.83 | 20.66 | 18.77 | 1.05 | 4.64 | 2.69 |
| LREE/HREE | 8.2 | 6.24 | 8.71 | 6.92 | 7.86 | 7.18 | 11.58 | 6.59 | 10.67 |
| La(N)/Yb(N) | 10.83 | 6.34 | 9.25 | 7.47 | 8.53 | 7.5 | 11.56 | 8.41 | 10.84 |
| δEu | 0.73 | 0.68 | 0.67 | 0.6 | 0.61 | 0.61 | 1.16 | 1.33 | 0.63 |
| δCe | 0.98 | 1.04 | 1.01 | 1.01 | 1.03 | 1.02 | 0.99 | 1.04 | 1.01 |
| La(N)/Sm(N) | 3.62 | 3.19 | 3.64 | 3.51 | 3.41 | 3.41 | 4.68 | 2.03 | 4.35 |
| Gd(N)/Yb(N) | 2.09 | 1.52 | 1.57 | 1.54 | 1.6 | 1.53 | 1.47 | 2.96 | 1.43 |
The standard reference value of the rare earth element is C1-cyhalite as measured by [38].
Table 3.
Sulfur isotopic compositions of pyrite from Xiaojiashan gold deposit (‰).
| Sample | δ34SVCDT | Sources | Sample | δ34SVCDT | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| X1 | −8.0 | This study | Pt2 | −13.10~−6.26 | [21] |
| X3 | −6.9 | Yanlinsi | −5.73 | ||
| X5 | −7.1 | −4.57 | |||
| X7 | −5.0 | Xiaojianshan | −33.3~−0.99 | [18] | |
| X10 | −3.1 | −5.25~−2.05 | [28] | ||
| X11 | −7.6 | Yanlinsi | −10.34~+6.12 | [22] | |
| Pt2 | −10.4 | [40] | Zhengchong | −8.9~−0.1 | [14] |
| Pt2 | −12.56~−5.93 | [13] |
Table 4.
Temperature of fluid inclusions in Xiaojiashan gold deposit.
| Stage | No. | Size (μm) | Vapor (%) | Th (°C) | Tm (°C) | Ti (°C) | Salinity (wt%) NaCl |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | X1 | 4.0–8.0 | 10–45 | 186–332 | −6.8–−1.9 | −22–−20 | 3.2–10.2 |
| X2 | 3.5–8.6 | 15–45 | 219–343 | −6.4–−1.0 | −23–−20 | 1.7–9.7 | |
| II | X3 | 4.0–7.5 | 10–30 | 169–314 | −6.1–−0.5 | −23–−20 | 0.8–9.3 |
| X5 | 3.8–9.0 | 5–40 | 167–296 | −6.0–−0.8 | −23–−20 | 1.4–9.2 | |
| X7 | 4.5–7.5 | 10–40 | 183–302 | −6.9–-2.3 | −23–−20 | 3.8–10.3 | |
| X8 | 4.0–8.6 | 5–45 | 137–288 | −5.9–−1.3 | −25–−20 | 2.2–9.0 | |
| X9 | 4.6–10.7 | 5–35 | 184–295 | −7.6–−2.4 | −24–−20 | 4.0–11.2 | |
| III | X10 | 3.8–7.6 | 10–30 | 145–268 | −7.6–−1.0 | −23–−21 | 1.7–11.2 |
| X11 | 4.3–7.2 | 5–30 | 179–238 | −7.8–−1.4 | −25–−21 | 2.4–11.4 | |
| X12 | 3.8–8.5 | 10–35 | 122–250 | −5.4–−0.7 | −25–−21 | 1.2–8.4 |
Table 5.
Abundance and parameters of some metallic elements in the Lengjiaxi Group and Xiaojiashan gold deposit in northeastern Hunan (ω(B)/ppm, ω(Au)/ppb).
Table 5.
Abundance and parameters of some metallic elements in the Lengjiaxi Group and Xiaojiashan gold deposit in northeastern Hunan (ω(B)/ppm, ω(Au)/ppb).
| Position | No. | Au | Cu | Pb | Zn | As | Sb | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ① Northeastern Hunan | 120 | 2.97 | 41.88 | 38.61 | 120.69 | 34.34 | 1.67 | [43,44] |
| ② Yanlinsi section | 33 | 19.02 | 50.09 | 31.49 | 131.56 | 87.04 | 1.65 | [37] |
| ④ Upper crust | 1.8 | 25 | 20 | 71 | 1.5 | 0.2 | [45] | |
| ①/④ | 1.65 | 1.68 | 1.93 | 1.70 | 22.89 | 8.38 | ||
| ②/① | 6.40 | 1.20 | 0.82 | 1.09 | 2.53 | 0.99 |
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Hou, D.; Lin, S.; Liu, L.; Huan, C.; Qiu, H.; Tu, B. Metal Source and Fluid Evolution in Xiaojiashan Gold Deposit in Northeastern Hunan, China: Implications of Rare Earth Elements, Fluid Inclusions, and Pyrite S Isotopic Compositions. Minerals 2023, 13, 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13010121
AMA Style
Hou D, Lin S, Liu L, Huan C, Qiu H, Tu B. Metal Source and Fluid Evolution in Xiaojiashan Gold Deposit in Northeastern Hunan, China: Implications of Rare Earth Elements, Fluid Inclusions, and Pyrite S Isotopic Compositions. Minerals. 2023; 13(1):121. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13010121
Chicago/Turabian StyleHou, Dongzhuang, Shu Lin, Lang Liu, Chao Huan, Huafu Qiu, and Bingbing Tu. 2023. "Metal Source and Fluid Evolution in Xiaojiashan Gold Deposit in Northeastern Hunan, China: Implications of Rare Earth Elements, Fluid Inclusions, and Pyrite S Isotopic Compositions" Minerals 13, no. 1: 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13010121
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