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Article

Zircons from Collisional Granites, Garhwal Himalaya, NW India: U–Th–Pb Age, Geochemistry and Protolith Constraints

by
Sumit Mishra
1,*,
Alexander I. Slabunov
2,*,
Sergei A. Svetov
2,
Anna V. Kervinen
2 and
Natalia S. Nesterova
2
1
Department of Geology, School of Earth Sciences, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Garhwal, Srinagar 246174, Uttarakhand, India
2
Karelian Research Centre RAS, Institute of Geology, 185910 Petrozavodsk, Russia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2021, 11(10), 1071; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11101071
Submission received: 29 July 2021 / Revised: 22 September 2021 / Accepted: 23 September 2021 / Published: 29 September 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue U-Pb Dating and Chemistry of Zircon in Metamorphic, Magmatic and Sedimentary Rocks)
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Abstract

:
In the present work, we studied zircons from the less foliated granites of the Chail Group, which form a thrust sheet of the Lesser Himalayan Sequences, Garhwal region. Compositionally, these granites are S–type, formed in a collisional tectonic setting. Zircons possess an internal structure, mineral inclusions, and geochemical characteristics typical of magmatic origin. The U–Th–Pb geochronology and geochemistry were assessed using the laser ablation multi–collector inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS) technique. U–Th–Pb isotope dating of zircons from two different samples revealed their age, estimated from the upper intersection of the discordia, to be 1845 ± 19 Ma. Zircons from one sample contained inherited cores belonging to three age groups: Paleoarchean (3.52 Ga), Neoarchean (2.78 Ga and 2.62 Ga), and Paleoproterozoic (2.1 Ga). Zircons with ages of 3.52, 2.62, and 2.1 Ga were interpreted as magmatic based on their geochemical characteristics. The 2.78 Ga core was interpreted as metamorphic. The observed inheritance is consistent with the melting of sedimentary rocks. The inherited zircons could have originated from Aravalli and Bundelkhand Craton and Paleoproterozoic Aravalli Fold Belt rocks. This confirms that the studied granites are S–type and could have been formed in a collisional environment at 1.85 Ga on the western flank of the Columbia Supercontinent.

1. Introduction

Zircon (ZrSiO4) is an accessory mineral constituent of the majority of igneous and metamorphic rocks, with the zirconium element (Zr) serving as a structural constituent [1]. Trace elements (e.g., U, Th, Hf, Y and Lanthanide–rare earth elements (REEs)) are present in zircons in significant amounts [2,3,4]. Zircon resists alteration in a wide variety of geological settings. The isotopic ratios of the elements within the zircons provide ages and parent magma constraints because of their early formation and refractory nature during subsequent events [1,5,6,7]. The U–Pb ages determined from zircons have traditionally been considered the most accurate method for determining the meaningful crystallization age of granitoids. Additionally, zircon geochemistry can provide valuable information to establish the conditions of the environment under which the granitoids were emplaced.
The use of zircons as geochronometers is significant when geological criteria for rock dating are hard to determine due to the architectural characteristics of the study area. For example, Himalayan and other collisional orogens are collages of thrust sheets (Figure 1), where most contacts are tectonic and create difficulties in estimating the relative ages of geological bodies. In Lesser Himalayan Sequences (LHS), the thrust sheets comprising variably deformed and low-to-medium-grade metamorphosed igneous and sedimentary rocks lack distinctive field characteristics. Dating of the rocks within the thrust sheets and the correlation of ages and inherited age patterns to other tectonic units may help to characterize these sheets.
Geochronological data derived from Himalayan granitoids reveal their emplacement, cooling, and exhumation history [8]. These data show distinct periods of magmatic activity around 2100–1800, 1200–1000, 600–400, 100–50, and 25–15 Ma in the region [9]. Various geochemical, geochronological, and isotopic data have been used extensively in previous research on the Himalayas, indicating that granitic magmas formed during rifting, subduction, or accretion events [10,11,12,13]. The zircon U–Th–Pb ages of Lesser Himalayan granites range from around 2200 to 1750 Ma, and their age pattern resembles the ages obtained from the Columbia Supercontinent in the Paleoproterozoic time [14].
This paper analyzes the morphological and geochemical characteristics and isotopic ages of zircons from Precambrian Lesser Himalayan granites. It determines their possible protolith based on analytical results. To date, no U–Th–Pb ages of zircons or their geochemistry have been determined for the study area.

2. Geological Background

Four major tectonic zones are identified laterally from south to north in the Himalayan belt, with a length of more than 2400 km: (1) Sub-Himalaya, (2) Lesser Himalayan Sequences, (3) Higher Himalayan Crystalline, and (4) Tethyan Himalaya (Figure 1, [15,16,17]). The Sub-Himalaya thrusts over the Indo-Gangetic plane along the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), comprising Miocene to Pleistocene molasses and sediments derived from Himalaya [18]. The Lesser Himalayan Sequences consist of Paleoproterozoic to Early Mesoproterozoic rocks unconformably overlain by Early Cambrian, Upper Paleozoic to Cenozoic rocks and thrust over the Sub-Himalaya along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) [19]. The north-dipping Main Central Thrust (MCT) is one of the essential tectonic structures in the Himalayas. It is recognized as an intra-continental shear zone associated with isograde inverted metamorphism [20]. MCT separates Lesser Himalayan Sequences from Higher Himalayan Crystallines. Higher Himalayan Crystallines comprise medium- to high-grade metamorphic sequences ranging from greenschist to upper amphibolite facies [21] and are intruded by granites of Ordovician (c. 485–440 Ma) and early Miocene (c. 22 Ma) age.
The study area comprises the Chail/Ramgarh thrust sheets of Lesser Himalayan Sequences (LHS) in the Garhwal region [22], considered an eastward extension of the Ramgarh Group [23,24]. The Chail Group is a nappe overlaying the poorly metamorphosed LHS, constrained by the Jutogh and Chail Thrusts [21]. Jutogh–Almora and Chail/Ramgarh have been identified as low-to-medium-grade metasedimentary thrust sheets in LHS [18] (Figure 2). Paleoproterozoic granite gneiss and granite augen gneiss are an integral component of LHS. These Paleoproterozoic rocks in the Chail/Ramgarh Group occur as less foliated granites and gneisses with augen gneisses [24,25]. The Chail/Ramgarh Group comprises a package of low-grade metamorphic rocks, including phyllites, phyllitic quartzite, psammitic schists, orthoquartzites, chlorite schist limestones, and meta-basics [26].
Rb–Sr isochron ages for granite bodies adjacent to the study area (Chirbatiya Khal granites) are dated 1768 ± 131 Ma (4 points) with an initial 86Sr/87Sr ratio of 0.732 ± 0.147 [27]. Rb–Sr dating for granites exposed in the Ghuttu area (Chailli granites) gave an isochron age of 2120 ± 60 Ma, with an initial ratio of 0.710 ± 0.020 interpreted as the age of emplacement for these granites [28]. These ages are potentially imprecise using only the Rb–Sr isochron technique, which can give misleading ages due to the complications of recrystallization in old and deformed rocks; however, the initial ratios are likely relatively accurate. They suggest a source of old and/or radiogenic material.

3. Sampling and Petrographic Characteristics

Two granite samples, TG17-01 (N 30°21′27″, E 78°57′32″) and TG17-04 (N 30°21′28″, E 78°57′13″), which were less foliated, collected for the present study, are shown in Figure 3.
The granites are well-exposed around Toneta village, situated on the Tilwara–Mayali State Highway (Figure 3). At some places in the Toneta village area, the granites are foliated and show gneissose structures. Both samples, TG17-01 (Figure 4a,b) and TG17-04 (Figure 4c,d), are coarse-grained and less foliated, containing quartz and feldspar megacrysts with biotite and muscovite minerals. In relatively undeformed granite, where a porphyritic texture is clear, muscovite is apparently primary, making it likely that the protolith is peraluminous (contains muscovite ± biotite and no primary amphibole). These two mica granites have an accessory phase assemblage of zircon, apatite, minor tourmaline, and minor garnet in our two samples. The garnet is strongly associated with muscovite in foliated planes. Most of the minerals observed under the microscope are subhedral, although euhedral mineral grains are also present in the rocks (Figure 5a). Mica minerals follow the foliation direction. Muscovite has a parallel extension and second-order color under cross-polarized light (Figure 5b). Millimeter subhedral garnet grains have also been observed in some thin sections.

S-Type Characteristics of Granites

The studied granite, TG17-01 and TG17-04 (Table S1), in whole-rock geochemical analysis (detailed methodology described in Appendix A), has SiO2, 73.42 and 75.34 (wt. %); Al2O3, 13.26 and 12.76 (wt. %); Na2O, 1.06 and 2.47 (wt. %); K2O, 6.25 and 4.82 (wt. %); and P2O5, 0.23 and 0.2 (wt. %) (Table S1). The samples have normative corundum (4.617 and 3.431), and A/CNK values, 1.44 and 1.30, underline their strongly peraluminous nature. In the ACF (Al2O3–CaO–(FeO + MgO)) diagram in [30] and the K2O versus Na2O diagram [31], samples are falls in an S-type granite field (Figure S1a,b). The low P2O5 content and its negative correlation with SiO2 suggest that the granites have S-type affinity (Figure S1c). Moreover, in SiO2 versus K2O + Na2O–CaO diagrams [32], both samples are plotted in an S-type granite field (Figure S1d). In a source discrimination diagram [33], the sample plot in the meta-sediments field indicates that the granitic magma is the product of the partial melting of metasedimentary rocks (Figure S2). The trace elements Ba, Sr, Nb, and Ti, are low, and Rb, Th, U, and Pb are high in the samples [34] (Figure S3), typical for S-type granites and interpreted as syn-collision on the discrimination diagram after [35] (Figure S4).

4. Analytical Methods

Zircon U–Th–Pb Geochronology

Zircon separation was performed at the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Dehradun, India, with the procedure outlined in the following [36,37]. A quantity of 4–5 kg of granite from each sample was crushed using a jaw crusher and a disk mill. To concentrate heavy minerals in the samples, magnetic, gravitational, and electrical methods were used. Heavy liquid (bromoform) was used to separate zircons and other heavy minerals. The zircons were hand-picked under a binocular microscope. Epoxy resin was used to mount the zircons. We polished the zircons in order to expose their surfaces. To investigate their internal structure, they were then examined under optical, back-scatter electron (BSE), and cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopes. The mineral structure and inclusion chemistry of the zircon and BSE images were obtained with an acceleration voltage of 15 kV, a beam current of 15 ± 0.05 nA, and a counting time of 10–15 s using a Vega II LSH (TESCAN, Brno, Czech Republic) scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy-dispersive microanalyzer (INCA Energy 350 from the Institute of Geology of the Karelian Research Center, RAS, Petrozavodsk, Russia).
In situ analyses of U–Th–Pb isotopes and trace elements of zircons were performed using ICP–MS Agilent 7500 Ce with a Complex Pro102 (LA–ICP–MS) laser ablation system with a ~30 μm spot diameter at Peking University, China. Helium was used to enhance the transport efficiency, and nitrogen was added to the argon plasma to lower the detection limit and improve analytical precision. Each spot incorporated a background acquisition of approximately 15 s (gas blank), followed by 30 s of sample data acquisition. The laser output fluence was constant and set to 6.0 J/cm2. The offline selection and integration of analytical and background signals, correction for time drift, and quantitative calibration for trace element analysis and U–Pb dating were performed with ICPMSDataCal and Glitter 4.0 software (CSIRO). Its algorithm is based on the creation of a three-dimensional diagram in coordinates 206Pb/238U, 207Pb/235U, and 208Pb/232Th; it includes the solution of a system of the equations connecting the maintenance of radiogenic and general Pb, the maintenance of modern non-radiogenic Pb, and the age and quantity of the lost Pb [38]. The zircon 91500 [39] was used as the primary reference material and Plesovice [40] as the secondary. The average value of age during the analytical session for the Plesovice (the accepted age—337.13 ± 0.37 Ma [40]) was 347 ± 15 Ma, and for 91500 (the accepted age—1062.4 ± 0.4 Ma [39]), it was 1071 ± 35 Ma. Common Pb correction was performed using the LAM–ICPMS Common Lead Correction calibration algorithm [41]. Data processing was carried out using the SQUID and Isoplot 4 programs [42]. Analytical errors for individual analyses are given with one-sigma uncertainty. In contrast, the mean ages for the pooled analyses are quoted with two-sigma uncertainty. The reference materials used in the analysis for trace elements were NIST SRM 610, 612, 614 (Standard Reference Material of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA) [43]. They were used as samples for calibration, quality control (Table S2), and inter-laboratory comparisons of concentration trace elements.

5. Zircon Morphology, Geochemistry, and Age

5.1. Zircon Morphology

The zircon crystals in Sample TG17-01 are transparent, pale yellowish–brownish, or colorless (clear) (uncommon). The degree of fracturing varies from almost going unnoticed at the grain margins to becoming highly longitudinal–transverse over the entire grain surface. Larger fractures are often filled with quartz. The crystals fall into two morphological types: sub-idiomorphic prismatic crystals with an elongation coefficient of 1.5–2.5 (approximately 90% of the samples) predominate; isometric grains, typically with many small, irregular facets, are less common. The prismatic crystals display sharp and obtuse dipyramids, whereas, in more elongated crystals, sharp dipyramids are not well-shaped. The common occurrence of asymmetrical crystals indicates zircon crystallization in the presence of the closely spaced grains of other minerals. Crystals with a prismatic habit typically exhibit slightly rounded facets. Their grains are 100–210 µm in size. Their internal structure in CL and BSE images is homogeneous for most zircons (no inclusions), except for one grain. The grain with spot T01-9 (Table 1) is dark in CL, with many micro-veins. It is only one of the examples of a metamictic zircon. Some of the grains show slight zoning near their tips (Figure 6a). There is a variety of included mineral phases. They are micron-sized (10–20 µm) quartz, apatite, thorite, biotite, and allanite inclusions that occur in the central portions of zircon grains. In contrast, intergrowths with monazite, up to 30 µm in size, are encountered at the margins.
Sample TG17-04 contains two morphological types of zircon grains: (1) sub-idiomorphic grains are present, and idiomorphic prismatic crystals of zircon type or their parts, often with oscillation zoning, retaining or partially retaining dipyramid facets, are less common; (2) ellipsoidal grains with rounded facets. Morphological (zircon) type 1 occurs as transparent to semi-transparent light-colored crystals with a short prismatic habit. Zircons of this type make up approximately 80–90% of the total volume of this mineral in the rock. The grains vary from 60 to 200 µm, and their elongation coefficient is 1–2. The crystal form is due to the development of prisms and dipyramids. A microprobe study of zircons in BSE and CL shows that grains are relatively well-preserved. The surface of the zircon grains displays various degrees of longitudinal–transverse fracturing; grains with a smooth surface and with no fractures are less common. The internal structure of some of the grains is multizonal; the zones are distributed symmetrically (Figure 7a). There are three metamictic grains with dark CL or with dark micro-veins only.
A second morphological type of zircon occurs as ellipsoidal grains with subdued outlines, with no dipyramid facets characteristic of type 1. Such grains are less common, amounting to 10–20% in the rock and forming light-yellow semi-transparent crystals, no more than 80 µm in size. The grain surface is dull, rough, and displays minor transverse fracturing. The internal structure in BSE is homogeneous.
The internal structure of these two morphotypes displays the presence (in some cases) of complex crystals with homogeneous internal cores that are well-defined in CL images (Figure 7a). In zircons of type 2, cores occupy two thirds of the entire grain volume, and their shape is markedly different from the external rim. This is also indicated by the higher idiomorphism and the presence of clearly traceable prismatic facets. There are mineral inclusions in the internal zone (core). However, these are too small (less than 3 µm) to be reliably identified. The cores of zircons of morphotype 1 are less conspicuous, and their shape is consistent with the external rim; the core structure in a CL image is more homogeneous. The zircons of both morphological types typically display solid-phase biotite, thorite, monazite, and apatite inclusions in both the central and marginal portions of grains. In addition, zircon–quartz intergrowths are encountered.

5.2. U–Th–Pb Isotope Data from Zircons

U–Th–Pb age isotope LA–ICP–MS analysis was performed on 29 points from 17 grains in Sample TG17-01 and 43 points from 37 zircon grains in Sample TG17-04 (Table 1). The 207Pb/206Pb age of most TG17-01 zircons is 2.0–1.6 Ga, with a maximum of approximately 1.8 Ga (Figure 6b; Table 1). All analytical points are formed on the U–Pb diagram with a concordia single isochron line—discordia (Figure 6c)—as is common for discordant U–Pb age data [38]. The line plotted using all analytical points (n = 29) has an upper intersection with concordia at 1846 ± 26 Ma and a lower intersection at 108 ± 40 Ma (Figure 6c). If only analytical points with a discordance (D, Table 1) of less than 100% (D < 100%) are used to estimate U–Pb age by the upper intersection at 1851 ± 36 Ma, the lower value at 131 ± 120 Ma (MSWD = 2.0, n = 15) (Figure 6c) is obtained. This 1851 ± 36 Ma age can be regarded as the most precise crystallization age of zircons in TG17-01 granite, and 108 ± 40 Ma is the age of Pb lost during tectonic events.
The 207Pb/206Pb age of most TG17-04 zircons is 2.0–1.6 Ga, with a maximum of approximately 1.8 Ga (Figure 7b; Table 1). However, there are three peaks with ages of (1) 3.5 Ga, (2) 2.62 and 2.78 Ga, and (3) ca. 2.1 Ga (Figure 7c; Table 1). All analytical points (excluding those older than 1.95 Ga) are formed on the U–Pb diagram with a concordia single isochron line (Figure 7c), as is common for discordant U–Pb age data [44]. The U–Pb age of the most common group of zircons (Figure 7c), estimated from the upper intersection with discordia using all analytical points, is 1845 ± 28 Ma, and the lower intersection of 124 ± 54 Ma. This first age is consistent with the magmatic stage of granite formation and the second with an age of terminal tectonic events. Using the most concordant values (D < 30%), the upper intersection of discordia is estimated as 1839 ± 38 Ma (Figure 7c). There is also the existence of analytical points of the core with older ages: the Paleoproterozoic (2.1 Ga), Neoarchean (2.62 Ga and 2.78 Ga), and Paleoarchean (3.52 Ga). These data indicate that the protolith of these granites contained detrital zircons of different ages, possibly as redeposited clasts.

5.3. Zircon Geochemistry

The geochemical characteristics of the zircons discussed are also consistent with their magmatic genesis. The analytical points of zircon composition on the discrimination diagrams Y–U, Ce/Ce*, and Eu/Eu* [5] are in the granite (leucogranite) fields (Figure 8). This means that the composition of zircons did not change significantly, despite the loss of Pb.
The average ΣLa–Lu and Y concentrations in zircons from both granite samples analyzed (3200 and 5500 ppm, respectively) are slightly higher than those in zircons from granites [1]. However, there is a significant difference in the composition of zircons with different degrees of discordance (D): zircons with D > 100 are enriched with REE and Y. Some differences in the composition of zircons from the two samples discussed are also noteworthy.
The Th and U contents of TG17-01 zircons (D < 100%) are relatively high (average 202 ppm (Th) and 805 ppm (U)), but if using grains with D > 100% (Table 1) too, the average values are 514 ppm (Th) and 2150 ppm (U). The average Th/U ratio is 0.22 (Table 2), which is characteristic of magmatic zircon [1]. Chondrite-normalized REE concentrations in zircons from Sample TG17-01 are similar to those in granites (Figure 9a): the REE distribution spectrum is differentiated, with an increase from La to Lu, HREE enrichment ((Yb/Sm)N-16(avg.)), and positive cerium (Ce/Ce*-2(avg.)) and negative europium (Eu/Eu*-0.05(avg.)) anomalies. REEs are enriched in zircons with D > 100% (Figure 9a). The average crystallization temperature of these zircons, determined using a Ti thermometer [44], is estimated to be 864 °C (this average does not include zircons with D > 100%), which could be a hot minimum melt temperature for granite [45].
Chondrite-normalized REE concentrations in zircons from Sample TG17-04 are also similar to those in granites (Figure 9b) (Table S3): the REE distribution spectrum is differentiated, with an increase from La to Lu; HREE enrichment ((Yb/Sm)N-151(avg.)) and positive cerium (Ce/Ce*-2(avg.)) and negative europium (Eu/Eu*-0.06(avg.)) anomalies are observed in TG17-01 zircons (Figure S5, Table S4). The average crystallization temperature of these zircons, determined using a Ti thermometer [45], is estimated to be 796 °C (this does not include zircons with D > 100%). Thus, 1.85 Ga zircons from Sample TG17-04 are a geochemically homogeneous group with parameters typical of granites, too, (Figure 8) (Figure S6).
The REE concentrations are typically igneous zircon with Lu concentrations 100 s of times greater than La, and all have a positive Ce anomaly and a negative Eu anomaly. Using D as a demarcation, the more discordant and TE-rich zircons have greater REE concentrations. For TG17-01, the high D zircons include the greatest Eu anomalies, suggesting that the zircons grew from a fractionating magma and that plagioclase was a significant fractionating phase. TG17-04 shows somewhat different behavior. In this sample, the most discordant have similar Eu anomalies.
Most of the zircon cores are plotted in the field of typical granitic magmas, and only the core with 2.78 Ga age shows a significant difference (spot TG04-6, Table 1), plotting in fields typical for carbonatites or mafic rocks (Figure 8). This core is notably depleted in HREE ((Yb/Sm)N-0.66), which likely indicates growth in the presence of garnet and possibly a metamorphic origin. Its crystallization temperature, determined using a Ti thermometer [46], is higher (926 °C) than that of the most common grains, which could be indirectly regarded as evidence of its metamorphic genesis. Thus, zircon cores from this sample are of both magmatic and metamorphic origin.

6. Discussion

The geochemical analysis of zircons from the studied granites has reliably identified them as magmatic. Most of the zircons have more than a 100% degree of discordance, which correlates with the enrichment of REE, U, and Th. However, in any case, all these zircons are discriminated as magmatic (Figure 8). The study of magmatic zircons from this granite can be used to precisely estimate the U–Pb age of the magmatic stage of granites formed: 1839 ± 38 and 1851 ± 36 Ma, respectively, for each of these samples. These values are identical within the constraints of the measurement accuracy. On the diagram with a concordia, all of the least discordant analytical points from both samples form a common isochron with an upper intersection of 1845 ± 19 Ma (Figure 10). This age can be regarded as the most valid age for the magmatic stage formation of granites. The lower intersection at 112 ± 62 Ma could be interpreted as the age of a thermal event during Indian plate subduction at ca. 80–60 Ma ago [9]. In the Paleoproterozoic era, many granites formed in the Himalayas from 1980 to 1750 Ma [12,47,48,49] (Figure 11), and the 1.85 Ga Chail Group granites in the Garhwal Lesser Himalaya continue to be essential for any geological reconstructions.
Evidence of old cores in zircons from granites varying in age from 3.5 to 2.1 Ga is analyzed to understand the genesis of the protolith. The scarce old cores of zircons can be divided into three age groups: Paleoarchean (3.52 Ga), Neoarchean (2.78 Ga and 2.62 Ga), and Paleoproterozoic (2.1 Ga). This diversity suggests that granites originated from sediments formed by the destruction of rocks varying in age from Paleoarchean to Paleoproterozoic and supports the notion that these granites are S-type granites [50].
The geochemical characteristics of the zircons suggest that most were produced by magmatic processes. However, the 2.78 Ga grain is depleted in HREE, which is characteristic of garnet-bearing metamorphic rocks [12,51,52]. In the Northern Indian plate, the Aravalli and Bundelkhand Cratons and the Paleoproterozoic Aravalli Fold Belt are recognized [53]. The Bundelkhand Craton contains Paleoarchean (3.6–3.2 Ga) granitoids [54,55,56] and signs of Neoarchean (2.78 and 2.69 Ga) eclogite- and amphibolite-facies metamorphism [57,58,59]. Thus, Bundelkhand Craton rocks could have been the source of Paleoarchean magmatic and Archean metamorphic zircons in the granites discussed.
Moreover, Neoarchean (2.58–2.5 Ga) granites are widespread in the Bundelkhand and Aravalli Cratons. The Aravalli Craton is known to contain 2.62 Ga Gingla Granite [60,61], which could have been the source of the 2.62 ± 0.05 Ga magmatic zircons in the Himalayan granitoids discussed. The Paleoproterozoic (ca 2.1 Ga) magmatic zircons in these rocks were most probably derived from the 1.90 ± 0.08 Ga Darwal Granite, formed during the Aravalli orogeny [61]. Thus, the 3.5–2.1 Ga cores of zircons from Paleoproterozoic Chail Group granites (Garhwal Lesser Himalayan) could have originated from the Aravalli and Bundelkhand Cratons and the Paleoproterozoic Aravalli Fold Belt. The old block of Indian shield crust comprised the entire western flank of the Columbia Supercontinent in the Paleoproterozoic time (ca. 1.85 Ga) [62]. Here, 1.85 Ga Chail Group granites could have been formed during accretion–collision events.
Collisional granites in orogenic belts are significant because their age can be used to estimate the minimum duration of an orogeny [63,64,65]. Most Paleoproterozoic granites in LHS (Table 3) are formed in convergent (arc and collisional) environments. For example, Ramgarh gneiss (1765 Ma), Askot granite gneiss (1857 Ma), Chiplakot granite gneiss (1924 Ma), and Lingtse orthogneiss (resembles Ulleri gneiss of Nepal Lesser Himalaya) also formed between 1850 and 1810 Ma.
Moreover, 1743 Ma [71] and 1752 Ma [72] Ma Bomdila gneiss in Arunachal Pradesh and its equivalent Ziro gneiss in Lower Subansiri are both integral parts of basement–involved imbricated thrusts in the Arunachal Lesser Himalaya [71,73], which are equivalent to the northwest Himachal Himalaya, Garhwal–Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, and Nepal Lesser Himalaya crystalline thrust sheets, which are derived from juvenile and crustal sources in arc-related tectonic settings (Table 3). Any part of Paleoproterozoic granite (for example, Larji-Kullu-Rampur window, NW Himalaya) could be developed in syn- to post-collision environments, as with the studied granites. Leucogranite–pegmatites from the Rangit window, Wangtu (MCT zone, Sutlej valley), Bandal (MCT zone Himachal Himalaya), and Bomdila (Arunachal Lesser Himalaya) are also developed in syn- to post-collision environments (Table 3), as evidenced by three-stage zircon Hf-model ages (2818, 2586–2424, 2393–2250 Ma) [66].

7. Conclusions

Zircons from Chail Group granites (Garhwal Lesser Himalayan) display an internal structure typical of magmatic varieties (oscillatory zoning); mineral quartz, apatite, thorite, biotite, allanite, and monazite inclusions; and geochemical characteristics (enrichment in HREE, Th/U > 0.1, and positive Ce/Ce* and negative Eu/Eu* anomalies). Hence, these zircons can be regarded as minerals formed at a magmatic stage in the evolution of granites. U–Th–Pb isotope dating of magmatic zircons from two different samples was performed to estimate their age from the upper intersection of the discordia at 1851 ± 36 (MSWD = 2.0, n = 15) and 1839 ± 38 (MSWD = 0.94, n = 13) Ma, respectively. Combining all of the least discordant analytical points from two samples to form a single isochron line on the U–Pb diagram and age 1845 ± 19 Ma (MSWD = 1.19, n = 28) estimate can be regarded as the most adequate.
The cores of three age groups—Paleoarchean (3.52 Ga), Neoarchean (2.78 Ga and 2.62 Ga), and Paleoproterozoic (2.1 Ga)—were revealed in zircons from one sample. Zircons aged 3.52, 2.62, and 2.1 Ga are regarded as magmatic based on their geochemical characteristics, and the 2.78 Ga core is metamorphic. Therefore, it can be concluded that these zircons have been derived from Aravalli and Bundelkhand Craton and Paleoproterozoic Aravalli Fold Belt rocks. Studied granites of the Chail Group were formed at 1845 Ma by melting a substrate consisting of rocks varying in age and genesis, which is characteristic of sediments. The discussed Paleoproterozoic granites were formed on the western flank of the Columbia Supercontinent during accretion–collision events.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min11101071/s1, Figure S1: Various chemical discrimination diagrams for granites of Lesser Garhwal Himalaya. (a) A–C–F diagram [29] Chappell and White 1992). (b) Na2O versus K2O diagram [30] (c) SiO2 versus P2O5 diagram [29] (d) SiO2 versus Na2O + K2O–CaO diagrams (the data for composition fields is from Lachlan Fold Belt) [31], Figure S2: Source discrimination diagram for granites after [32], Figure S3: Primitive mantle-normalized trace elements patterns of the granites [33], Figure S4: Hf–Rb–Ta discrimination diagram [34], Figure S5: Chondrite-normalized [46] REE concentrations in granite TG17-01 and calculated REE concentrations based on zircon/melt partition coefficient for element Grc1 [50] and Grc2 [83], Figure S6: Chondrite-normalized [46] REE concentrations in granite TG17-04 and calculated REE concen-trations based on zircon/melt partition coefficient for element Grc1 [50] and Grc2 [83], Table S1: Whole-rock geochemistry of granite samples (major elements in wt. % and trace elements in ppm), Table S2: Calculations of REE and Y in TG17-01 granites, based on data on their concentrations in Paleoproterozoic zircons, Table S3: Calculations of REE and Y concentrations in TG17-04 Granites, based on data on their concentrations in Paleoproterozoic zircons, Table S4: Average content (610av, 612av, 614av) and standard deviation (SD) of trace elements in reference materials NIST SRM 610, 612, 614 (#610, #612, #614) during measurements. The accepted maintenance of trace elements in reference materials #610, #612, #614 on [42].

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.M. and A.I.S.; methodology, A.I.S., A.V.K. and N.S.N.; validation, S.M., A.I.S., S.A.S. and N.S.N.; investigation, S.M.; resources, A.I.S. and S.A.S.; data curation, A.I.S. and A.V.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M.; writing—review and editing, A.I.S., S.A.S., A.V.K. and N.S.N.; visualization, S.M. and A.I.S.; supervision, A.I.S. and S.A.S.; project administration, S.M. and A.I.S.; funding acquisition, S.A.S. and A.I.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by state assignment to the Institute of Geology Karelian Research Centre RAS AAAA-A18-118020290085-4.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We thank H.C. Nainwal (Department of Geology, HNBGU, Srinagar) for the continuous encouragement and for providing infrastructural facilities to S.M. S.M. acknowledges the DST-INSPIRE fellowship (IF160096). This paper is part of the doctoral research of S.M. and the contribution of A.I.S., A.K., S.A.S. and N.S.N. to the KarRC R.A.S. project A18-118020290085. We thank Xiaoli Li and F. Ma, Peking University, Beijing, China, for their help in the dating of zircons and the determination of their geochemistry. We are thankful to Saurabh Gupta (Nainital) for the revision of the manuscript. Critical and constructive comments from three anonymous reviewers helped to improve the presentation and clarify the authors’ meaning.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Whole-Rock Geochemistry

Whole-rock geochemical analysis of samples was carried out at the Centre for Collective Usage, Karelian Research Centre, R.A.S. (Petrozavodsk, Russia). To determine the concentrations of the rock-forming elements, sample powder was melted and then treated with Na2CO3 (sodium bicarbonate). The solution was then leached with dilute HCl (hydrochloric acid) to determine the element concentrations. The gravimetric method was used to determine the SiO2 concentration in the resulting solution after it was precipitated with gelatin for the first time (with absorption photometry, PerkinElmer, and by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) using spectrometry ARL ADVAN X). The concentrations of Mg, Ca, Al, and Fe was determined using a sophisticated metric calculation. The precision of the major and trace element concentrations of the samples were determined using examinations of the standard samples GSP-2 (Granodiorite, Silver Plume, Colorado) and BHVO-2 (Basalt, Hawaiian Volcanic Observatory) (Supplementary Table S1) [84].
In contrast, the concentrations of Ti and P were obtained photometrically. Two parallel estimations were added to ensure that the calculation accuracy remained within an acceptable range of error. For Si, the accuracy was within 0.7 percent; for Fe, Al, Ca, and Mg, it was within 0.5 percent; and for P and Ti, it was within 0.3 percent. The amounts of trace elements in the samples were determined using an X Series-2 inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP–MS) (Thermo Ficher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Svetov et al. [85] and Singh and Slabunov [86] outline the approach and methods used in this investigation in detail. The samples were degraded in an autoclave using acid dissolution. For analysis, weighted sections of material weighing 0.1 g were employed. The substances studied were decomposed in conjunction with two standard samples and two reference samples (blank samples) (GSP-2 and BHVO-2).

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Figure 1. Simplified geological and tectonics map of the northernmost part of India and surrounding boundary zone of the Indian subcontinent, showing the principal components of the Indian Shield [15]. (Abbreviations: ArC: Aravalli Craton; BuC: Bundelkhand Craton; BC: Bastar Craton; SC: Singhbhum Craton; MB: Meghalaya Craton; GB; Gwalior basin; VB: Vindhyan basin; MB: Marwar basin; CHB: Chhattisgarh basin; CITZ: Central Indian tectonic zone; MB: Marwar basin; ADMB: Aravalli–Delhi mobile belt; SMB: Singhbhum mobile belt; MBT; Main boundary thrust; MCT: Main central thrust; STD: South Tibetan detachment; ISZ: Indus suture zone; DRVP: Deccan–Rajmahal Volcanic Province).
Figure 1. Simplified geological and tectonics map of the northernmost part of India and surrounding boundary zone of the Indian subcontinent, showing the principal components of the Indian Shield [15]. (Abbreviations: ArC: Aravalli Craton; BuC: Bundelkhand Craton; BC: Bastar Craton; SC: Singhbhum Craton; MB: Meghalaya Craton; GB; Gwalior basin; VB: Vindhyan basin; MB: Marwar basin; CHB: Chhattisgarh basin; CITZ: Central Indian tectonic zone; MB: Marwar basin; ADMB: Aravalli–Delhi mobile belt; SMB: Singhbhum mobile belt; MBT; Main boundary thrust; MCT: Main central thrust; STD: South Tibetan detachment; ISZ: Indus suture zone; DRVP: Deccan–Rajmahal Volcanic Province).
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Figure 2. Simplified geological map of Kumaun–Garhwal Himalaya [22].
Figure 2. Simplified geological map of Kumaun–Garhwal Himalaya [22].
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Figure 3. Location map of the study area. (a) Northern part of India and (b) location marked in inset map of Uttarakhand (Tropical pink: granite; yellow circle 1: Chailli granite, 2120 ± 60 Ma, and yellow circle 2: Chirbatiya Khal granite, 1768 ± 131 Ma); (c) Geological map of the study area (modified after [23] with sample locations); (d) Geological cross-section sketch.
Figure 3. Location map of the study area. (a) Northern part of India and (b) location marked in inset map of Uttarakhand (Tropical pink: granite; yellow circle 1: Chailli granite, 2120 ± 60 Ma, and yellow circle 2: Chirbatiya Khal granite, 1768 ± 131 Ma); (c) Geological map of the study area (modified after [23] with sample locations); (d) Geological cross-section sketch.
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Figure 4. (a) Toneta granite exposed 4 km from the road in Tilwara towards Mayali; (b) close-up view of Sample TG17-01 showing porphyritic texture; (c) massive exposure of Toneta granite along with Tilwara–Mayali State Highway (Sample TG17-04); (d) close-up view of Sample TG17-04.
Figure 4. (a) Toneta granite exposed 4 km from the road in Tilwara towards Mayali; (b) close-up view of Sample TG17-01 showing porphyritic texture; (c) massive exposure of Toneta granite along with Tilwara–Mayali State Highway (Sample TG17-04); (d) close-up view of Sample TG17-04.
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Figure 5. Photomicrograph of the thin section (in XPL) studied granite samples: (a) Sample TG17-01; (b) Sample TG17-04. (Mineral symbols taken from [29]).
Figure 5. Photomicrograph of the thin section (in XPL) studied granite samples: (a) Sample TG17-01; (b) Sample TG17-04. (Mineral symbols taken from [29]).
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Figure 6. Zircon of granite TG17-01. (a) Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of representative zircon grains. Numbers of analytical points: 207Pb/206Pb ages (in Ma). (b) Histogram of 207Pb/206Pb age distribution in Sample TG17-01. (c) U–Pb diagram with a concordia for zircons from the granite (Sample TG17-01). The U–Pb age (t) of magmatic zircons is 1851 ± 36 Ma (t1*) for zircon with D < 100% and 1845 ± 28 Ma (t1) for all analytical points. (t1—the upper intersection of discordia age; t2—the lower intersection of discordia age).
Figure 6. Zircon of granite TG17-01. (a) Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of representative zircon grains. Numbers of analytical points: 207Pb/206Pb ages (in Ma). (b) Histogram of 207Pb/206Pb age distribution in Sample TG17-01. (c) U–Pb diagram with a concordia for zircons from the granite (Sample TG17-01). The U–Pb age (t) of magmatic zircons is 1851 ± 36 Ma (t1*) for zircon with D < 100% and 1845 ± 28 Ma (t1) for all analytical points. (t1—the upper intersection of discordia age; t2—the lower intersection of discordia age).
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Figure 7. Zircon of granite TG17-04. (a) Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of representative zircon grains. Numbers of analytical points: 207Pb/206Pb ages (in Ma). (b) Histogram of 207Pb/206Pb age distribution in Sample TG17-04. (c) U–Pb diagram with a concordia for Paleoarchean (yellow), Neoarchean (orange), Paleoproterozoic core (red), and Paleoproterozoic magmatic (green) zircons from the granite (Sample TG17-04); t1—the upper intersection of discordia age; t2—the lower intersection of discordia age; t1—1839 ± 38 Ma is the age for magmatic zircon with D < 30%, t1*—1845 ± 28 Ma is age all analytical points of magmatic zircons, t1**—2117 ± 47 Ma is the age of Paleoproterozoic core; with D < 30% (red color) is 1839 ± 38 Ma (t1), and for all (pink are zircon with D > 30%) analytical points are 1845 ± 28 Ma (t1*). (t1—the upper intersection of discordia age; t2—the lower intersection of discordia age); (d) Weighted average 207Pb/206Pb age of zircons with age older 1.95 Ga (color are same as in 7c).
Figure 7. Zircon of granite TG17-04. (a) Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of representative zircon grains. Numbers of analytical points: 207Pb/206Pb ages (in Ma). (b) Histogram of 207Pb/206Pb age distribution in Sample TG17-04. (c) U–Pb diagram with a concordia for Paleoarchean (yellow), Neoarchean (orange), Paleoproterozoic core (red), and Paleoproterozoic magmatic (green) zircons from the granite (Sample TG17-04); t1—the upper intersection of discordia age; t2—the lower intersection of discordia age; t1—1839 ± 38 Ma is the age for magmatic zircon with D < 30%, t1*—1845 ± 28 Ma is age all analytical points of magmatic zircons, t1**—2117 ± 47 Ma is the age of Paleoproterozoic core; with D < 30% (red color) is 1839 ± 38 Ma (t1), and for all (pink are zircon with D > 30%) analytical points are 1845 ± 28 Ma (t1*). (t1—the upper intersection of discordia age; t2—the lower intersection of discordia age); (d) Weighted average 207Pb/206Pb age of zircons with age older 1.95 Ga (color are same as in 7c).
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Figure 8. Analytical points of zircons from Lesser Garhwal Himalaya 1.85 Ga granite (TG17-01 and TG17-04). (a) U versus Y; (b) Europium anomaly (Eu/Eu*) versus Cerium anomaly (Ce/Ce*); (c) Yb/Sm versus Y; and. (d) Cerium anomaly (Ce/Ce*) versus Y. (Trace element composition in ppm). Pink squares—all zircons from TG17-01 granite (1: aplite, leucogranites; 2: granites; 3; granodiorites and tonalites); blue rhombus—zircons from TG17-04 granite with an age of ca. 1850 Ma; circles—zircons, with age greater than ca. 1850 Ma from TG17-04 granite. The fields of zircon composition from different rock types are taken from [5].
Figure 8. Analytical points of zircons from Lesser Garhwal Himalaya 1.85 Ga granite (TG17-01 and TG17-04). (a) U versus Y; (b) Europium anomaly (Eu/Eu*) versus Cerium anomaly (Ce/Ce*); (c) Yb/Sm versus Y; and. (d) Cerium anomaly (Ce/Ce*) versus Y. (Trace element composition in ppm). Pink squares—all zircons from TG17-01 granite (1: aplite, leucogranites; 2: granites; 3; granodiorites and tonalites); blue rhombus—zircons from TG17-04 granite with an age of ca. 1850 Ma; circles—zircons, with age greater than ca. 1850 Ma from TG17-04 granite. The fields of zircon composition from different rock types are taken from [5].
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Figure 9. Chondrite-normalized [46] REE concentrations in zircons (a) from TG17-01 granite and (b,c) TG17-04 granite.
Figure 9. Chondrite-normalized [46] REE concentrations in zircons (a) from TG17-01 granite and (b,c) TG17-04 granite.
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Figure 10. Diagram with a concordia for zircons from granite (Sample TG17-01–red and TG17-04–black). U–Pb age magmatic zircons are 1845 ± 19 Ma. t1—the upper intersection of discordia age; t2—the lower intersection of discordia age.
Figure 10. Diagram with a concordia for zircons from granite (Sample TG17-01–red and TG17-04–black). U–Pb age magmatic zircons are 1845 ± 19 Ma. t1—the upper intersection of discordia age; t2—the lower intersection of discordia age.
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Figure 11. Histogram of the published geochronological data set on Paleoproterozoic granites of Lesser Himalayan (Table 3) and age of studied Chail Group granites. (Star: discordant analytical points from both samples form a common isochron with an upper intersection of 1845 ± 19 Ma, Figure 10).
Figure 11. Histogram of the published geochronological data set on Paleoproterozoic granites of Lesser Himalayan (Table 3) and age of studied Chail Group granites. (Star: discordant analytical points from both samples form a common isochron with an upper intersection of 1845 ± 19 Ma, Figure 10).
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Table
Table 1. U–Th–Pb isotope (LA–ICP–MS) data for zircons from Lesser Garhwal Himalaya (India) granite (TG17-01 and TG17-04).
Table 1. U–Th–Pb isotope (LA–ICP–MS) data for zircons from Lesser Garhwal Himalaya (India) granite (TG17-01 and TG17-04).
SampleConcentrations (ppm)Isotopic RatiosIsotopic Age (Ma)D
SpotTh, ppmU, ppmTh/U207Pb/235U1s206Pb/238U1sRho208Pb/232Th1s207Pb/206Pb1s206Pb/238U1s207Pb/235U1s208Pb/232Th1s(%)
TG17-01
T01-1202.4838.450.2412.805490.083630.195280.002070.880.056780.0005617006011501113572211161148
T01-2383.04681.170.5623.973390.094580.248580.002380.90.060420.0012418942914311216291911862432
T01-3120.73797.120.1514.399390.103150.284080.002680.90.085210.0018818372916121317121916533514
T01-4104.44722.920.1444.183270.09930.272250.002590.90.081240.0018418232915521316711915793417
T01-5175.631357.780.1292.258130.054480.147410.001390.890.042580.0003618174888681199178437105
T01-6157.773641.70.0430.732660.056710.059530.000690.860.017590.005471410155373455833352109278
T01-7162.523804.510.0430.272460.031610.027180.000350.870.008210.00322100624817322452516565482
T01-8310.833408.130.0910.369820.02170.029230.000340.850.008610.00079146211718623201617316686
T01-9263.883387.320.0780.282490.020630.02240.000270.860.00660.00098145614514322531613320918
G01-1248.13751.030.3303.317330.074870.212880.001990.90.061590.0013618472712441114851812082648
G01-22541.1510,384.290.2450.049240.003390.007750.000070.580.002860.00042 15349.80.5493588-
G01-3105.99615.770.1724.791920.105050.313210.002810.890.090490.000731815441756141783181751133
G01-4529.331357.520.3902.033420.05130.135150.001250.890.039110.0003217855081771127177756118
G01-5256.61005.080.2552.500730.061220.172260.001530.880.050040.0004417194910258127218987868
G01-6343.11193.910.2872.131050.049410.138290.001310.90.024720.00063182728835711591649412119
G01-798.37911.710.1083.027690.070030.197520.001770.880.057060.000718194611621014151811221357
G01-888.581025.670.0862.579070.061570.168240.001620.880.04860.0004418194810029129517959982
G01-9204.8535.920.3824.735590.111790.304240.002970.90.084720.001931845291712151774201644368
G01-10595.86734.030.8123.178510.070830.206480.00190.90.046140.000921825271210101452179121851
G01-11149.69757.250.1983.56190.080430.234550.002130.890.067820.0005518024513581115411813261033
G01-12176.211836.20.0961.23890.029250.083280.000750.880.024130.000281764475164818134825242
G01-13216.59825.90.2622.473920.062870.162840.001570.890.047080.00041802519739126418930885
G01-14145.681043.690.1402.269450.052170.151340.001370.890.043820.000371779469088120316867796
G01-15112.61836.620.1354.003120.090780.256490.002390.90.074850.0018918502714721216351814593626
G01-166344.229936.270.6381.353430.06580.107330.001080.860.031640.000361456976576869286307122
G01-17315.134804.090.0660.312430.07290.039460.00060.890.012250.00771508461250427656246154103
G01-18227.122256.380.1010.79670.02120.055720.000520.880.016210.000291691533503595123256383
G01-19179.561472.110.1221.426250.036950.099630.000920.880.028980.000411694526125900155778177
G01-20158.311345.570.1181.807840.048980.124140.001190.880.036050.00057172554754710481871611129
TG17-04
T04-115832470.0490.45110.01310.033220.000330.880.009720.00028159659211237891956656
T04-215726680.0590.595380.017530.044320.000450.880.012980.000291575602803474112616463
T04-316230140.0540.327710.010880.024430.000260.870.007150.00024157367156228881445908
T04-41654950.3324.594690.135660.298160.003120.890.086080.000781828581682161748251669149
T04-51726980.2464.683360.134520.309450.003190.890.08950.000811796571738161764241733153
T04-61327560.1744.845160.133770.314460.00320.890.090790.000811828551763161793231756154
T04-712,58122085.5561.485950.041560.081690.000850.90.002690.00007212334506592517541320
T04-8768380.093.569870.106820.237850.002470.880.068850.0009617805913761315432413461829
T04-916012780.1251.603850.080110.126030.001410.860.037110.0016314741007658972317373293
T04-1016810560.1592.556910.095590.180760.001950.870.052650.0010116727410711112882710371956
T04-111069000.1183.372050.111440.216910.002330.880.062570.0010518446412661214982612272046
T04-123846850.5624.264810.136560.264010.003010.90.07740.002219134115101516872615074127
T04-13997310.1353.872040.138450.256130.002950.880.074090.0010217947014701516082914451922
T04-1413518210.0740.652780.079020.067920.000950.870.020620.0036292026342465104941372117
T04-151303120.4185.130020.179860.327170.004090.90.10730.00341860451825201841302060622
T04-1645420270.2241.375740.060370.096830.001150.880.028190.000431680865967879265628182
T04-171876600.2824.995510.172980.314130.003790.90.066670.002191885451761191819291305417
T04-181949950.1952.678080.114510.180110.002170.880.052190.0008217638310681213223210281665
T04-19103528740.360.295650.026730.026640.000370.870.007960.0001912091871692263211604615
T04-20133024660.5411.117950.063480.066080.000890.890.01890.0002619961074135762303785383
T04-212049500.2152.58510.106760.164210.002060.880.047310.00057186780980111296309341191
T04-2211111320.0982.471070.116250.173490.002210.880.050490.001491684921031121264349962963
T04-2314914330.1041.38720.082390.102730.001370.870.030060.00144158511763088843559928152
T04-24806620.1214.472540.173510.292980.003710.890.084670.000961811761656181726321643189
T04-2525517190.1481.225360.059960.082580.001090.880.023930.000517599551268122747810244
T04-2612212170.12.220750.10740.152270.002020.880.044210.00119172894914111188348742389
T04-2725411770.2162.220610.10680.149540.002020.880.043340.00061176194898111188348571296
T04-281118730.1273.265080.136130.211550.002820.880.061070.0007318318112371514733211981448
T04-293199230.3463.630050.149340.224190.003030.90.065850.0025319185413041615563312894847
T04-3016,62353883.1250.601820.024990.02480.000340.90.003470.000132616511582478167031556
T04-3180518780.4291.07380.062650.075520.00110.880.021980.0002716811144697741314395258
TG04-124415650.1561.756150.055190.11540.001190.880.033360.0004518056270471029206639156
TG04-2776780.1134.68540.12990.301660.003130.890.087020.00081843551700161765231687158
TG04-31187950.1484.344660.121030.280390.002880.890.08090.0007318385515931417022315721415
TG04-42678400.3173.994520.112830.253580.002660.90.074430.0019318683614571416332314513628
TG04-52667780.3414.189440.122070.269640.002920.90.058830.0016318433715391516722411553120
TG04-61491181.26611.715730.367690.435070.005560.90.073240.0020827873523292525822914293920
TG04-71439540.152.597050.09170.184740.0020.880.053840.0008716607010931113002610601752
TG04-825514500.17612.343390.349990.288340.003030.91.202210.0304835233116331526312715957280116
TG04-9229612780.7460.834110.024660.046270.00050.90.011010.000292108372923616142216622
TG04-1046823880.1960.836160.038910.061750.000710.870.018060.000431591923864617223629312
TG04-1151217150.2991.548850.139220.115370.00160.880.033780.00153157417670499505567230124
TG04-1284015900.5292.118490.063750.117550.001280.90.031940.00086210737716711552163517194
D—degree of discordance, D = 100 {[t(207Pb/206Pb)]/[t(206Pb/238U)] − 1}. Rho—correlation coefficient of ratios 207Pb/235U − 206Pb/238U.
Table
Table 2. Trace element concentrations (in ppm) of Th/U, Eu/Eu*, Ce/Ce*, and T °C for zircons from Lesser Garhwal Himalaya (India) granite TG17-01 and TG17-04.
Table 2. Trace element concentrations (in ppm) of Th/U, Eu/Eu*, Ce/Ce*, and T °C for zircons from Lesser Garhwal Himalaya (India) granite TG17-01 and TG17-04.
SampleYLaCePrNdSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLuΣLa-LuEu/Eu*Ce/Ce*TiT °C**Th/U
TG17-01
T01-11943.030.0492.540.1141.564.520.0526.3612.03164.1664.17289.4661.42571.1394.621292.180.017.528.017220.241
T01-21454.441.2286.510.685.596.890.28229.6311.22132.548.9212.4743.31394.9369.98964.120.061.5832.348560.562
T01-321850.4521.840.2882.34.530.15127.5613.11174.8170.68320.0968.04635.55110.881430.280.041.1439.028770.151
T01-41907.110.03141.4470.0851.433.260.05622.8510.99151.9961.19280.9560.46563.9199.331257.980.026.0612.47600.144
T01-52746.230.0731.550.0911.083.910.05729.615.13216.7789.59428.2494.57905.84160.91947.40.024.2415.167790.129
T01-65346.780.682.730.4393.565.630.38138.3224.1380.13163.2824.2200.612022.89362.714029.580.081.1187.539760.043
T01-75124.781.144.980.8645.777.10.7635.9122.47353.24153.06787.94194.742013.76374.183955.910.151.12157.5110590.043
T01-84885.936.557.12.4112.447.620.84929.9817.07280.35135.02777.33203.542301.55466.834248.640.170.40184.6410840.091
T01-95039.96.177.032.2911.977.630.73629.9417.41289.95139791.96210.682386.66480.314381.740.150.42220.2911120.078
G01-12470.520.3083.910.3943.947.060.08239.4616.54210.2181.22357.9274.19677.34116.51589.70.022.5087.039750.330
G01-210,455.7454.3272.7524.03119.761.933.82132.1151.93685.91302.991653.66415.494194.05791.488564.170.130.451055.7614280.245
G01-31538.220.1771.4050.0951.1542.720.06617.888.68120.5148.94231.1150.2247784.021043.980.032.3961.089290.172
G01-43412.430.2968.210.6157.7413.860.67277.2428.3333.65116.71475.5290.05776.89129.242058.990.064.2726.598350.390
G01-51938.660.2544.120.2312.84.770.09428.7612.67166.8163.64281.4558.51534.4589.191247.750.023.7824.158250.255
G01-62258.432.4510.341.1616.777.010.19433.214.2183.1973.44342.0371.54666.04123.461535.20.041.367.547170.287
G01-72166.230.7851.2980.3182.313.340.10322.1111.22158.9966.36322.7269.66656.25121.911437.370.040.5813.017640.108
G01-82126.920.11.2210.1341.082.650.04420.410.38147.5564.14315.0870.15678.1125.521436.550.022.3517.197910.086
G01-91379.930.6643.730.3753.114.340.10721.599.15115.0745.45209.6644.39409.9777.52945.130.031.6698.779920.382
G01-102005.280.4687.30.5466.329.30.142.4315.3179.6965.48281.3256.44506.9893.381265.50.023.21115.5210140.812
G01-111597.941.1295.480.574.054.270.11321.89.78128.1550.77232.6350.38472.382.311063.730.041.527.617170.198
G01-123008.480.2182.580.2932.144.610.72827.7215.07216.5689.97437.3397.72949.75165.352010.40.22.279.297340.096
G01-131688.411.0557.570.8986.156.840.27129.1511.44137.0351.65234.3750.67503.3996.481136.960.061.7375.739570.262
G01-142722.560.2591.3580.2532.414.70.13134.8317.05222.583.99370.375.59682.8115.131611.30.031.1844.488910.140
G01-152537.30.4910.9990.2421.994.570.12531.1215.22204.2478.96356.0374.12681.99117.821567.920.030.6444.368910.135
G01-1613,3145145.68640.52183.331730.532135.347.396344.852010.3617,523.394379.912,927.881757.8311,167.71380.7662,335.460.010.8720.948100.638
G01-178533.2815.9969.9815.07102.9279.991.732224.182.09870.02270.831065.95207.21815.67299.765121.30.041.009.877400.066
G01-184164.557.920.433.3517.129.430.41337.2318.91285.95123.37614.19138.181341.2254.892872.560.070.881314.7614840.101
G01-192813.091.25.30.7935.185.540.17627.7214.04203.7486.73427.0695.84941.36173.911988.590.041.211633.0415430.122
G01-202720.766.1712.592.7113.747.080.33328.0512.6177.678.85443.9114.21265.43266.942430.190.070.682387.3616570.118
TG17-04
T04-14787.248.6440.144.8526.6218.1811.8664.7129.99392.93148.35648.69135.341224.29194.852949.441.061.3814.377740.049
T04-24577.679.1226.413.7517.5411.116.7146.8425.29357.41141.42627.27132.571163.96182.142751.540.91.008.387260.059
T04-34384.919.6836.384.5821.3311.989.746.9924.4346.85134.39603.96126.561132.59179.182688.571.261.218.787300.054
T04-41549.10.143.670.1141.63.320.09622.439.88126.2751.24230.1248.54447.5878.421023.420.036.4814.477740.333
T04-51678.880.2393.370.2171.653.640.3823.5110.68138.1654.2246.2351.92475.4583.571093.220.133.308.087220.246
T04-61779.730.0321.2810.06290.973.1<0.03621.6410.56145.7757.62268.1857.07526.6294.341187.260.016.255.486910.175
T04-71728.968.5229.796.5339.5832.645.4279.3824.11203.0856.76211.4539.84349.2759.241145.610.330.89124.5410255.698
T04-81672.770.1831.510.1171.123.310.09722.810.94139.1853.13232.0450.1462.579.831056.860.032.315.056840.091
T04-92422.571.710.481.2266.646.271.04229.1213.85191.3476.73341.4871.45646.21106.251503.790.241.617.077110.125
T04-102423.421.8113.631.388.77.682.0632.3714.92196.3477.34349.7673.45680.73112.651572.820.41.928.687290.159
T04-112408.280.7952.020.3432.344.450.1230.5814.8193.3874.32324.1467.24599.75101.471415.750.030.8624.488260.118
T04-122121.580.5587.920.5745.328.830.63541.6716.51193.5168.29276.1854.57472.7474.611221.920.13.1124.518260.561
T04-132346.140.5736.570.5823.914.941.1730.0814.59188.9673.99329.1367.89622.1105.661450.140.32.5320.398080.135
T04-143724.122.8822.322.3412.699.953.2639.8520.23281.93113.6531.87116.611103.77189.232450.530.51.9123.948240.074
T04-15645.110.0455.030.1010.971.860.07211.654.5356.0921.9697.8819.88183.3432.8436.210.0516.4011.277510.417
T04-169788.8931.3120.7213.7278.577.714.6283.42100.7996.38304.071161.42219.11853.5309.995565.120.31.2993.659850.224
T04-171536.480.8463.960.3992.213.530.20519.689.03118.5348.72226.4847.12443.0282.391006.120.081.528.867300.283
T04-184801.985189.19.3238.3921.254.92151.4461.91554.8146.11495.587.23747.31128.062586.340.270.9115.947840.195
T04-196715.66.9482.147.2742.4435.5312.98118.6748.5568.63210.45903.52176.591555270.24038.860.612.5798.539920.360
T04-208001.988.56123.4510.7367.116222.98196.6170.32743.07242.1944.4174.911463.46237.744367.440.642.8686.669740.539
T04-213181.392.2616.191.9912.112.932.5355.2123.33272.8998.2416.9581.73740.78131.261868.350.291.7045.518940.215
T04-223156.920.7064.40.5253.284.790.47629.8716.2228.2496.44455.4796.53900.66164.392001.980.121.6122.098160.098
T04-233425.491.8513.291.377.636.671.4433.8618.19256.03106.69505.65107.591017.16185.932263.350.291.8530.998510.104
T04-242047.75<0.01810.7480.03960.812.7<0.03421.5411.01153.1464.04300.4563.1591.81108.961318.370.018.394.946820.121
T04-254720.474.7245.94.8728.3221.627.6265.1828.85363.05136.16597.17120.11094.2192.842710.60.622.1380.799650.148
T06-262846.50.4453.150.3382.283.90.18127.5314.49208.4586.68404.585.71793.74143.891775.280.051.8015.227790.100
T06-273839.215.7423.974.7628.0724.634.6775.2129.4336.16119.55510.91104.75947.73162.082377.630.331.0214.667760.216
T06-281717.840.7151.860.2512.043.680.1325.1311.98145.6753.72221.7444.2388.764.78964.60.040.9812.87630.127
T06-291862.311.0814.371.217.287.340.9729.5412.64156.0759.92264.9155.95515.289.841216.320.22.8015.217790.346
T04-306515.3615.59149.0716.9999.3180.0724.52198.3968.8656.29202.06803.87161.951464.89244.914186.710.62.04155.8610583.085
T04-315166.563.6648.393.8724.5424.925.4107.0940.67461.55166.39688.66135.811190.67196.653098.270.322.8653.429130.429
TG04-13400.184.7844.854.3425.3621.566.4279.0231.13330.86105.62411.6878.96700.01121.661966.250.482.1934.118620.156
TG04-21609.020.1111.2590.11.082.650.10719.589.58131.6350.97227.2145.35412.4475.55977.620.052.6519.018010.114
TG04-32160.450.2913.020.2851.853.990.16925.5712.31167.767.07311.2564.59598.28109.911366.280.052.3333.588600.148
TG04-41746.490.6536.070.4983.373.930.17427.811.22143.0655.54250.2151.02469.3785.431108.350.052.3618.357970.318
TG04-528,208.391.22310.25.1789.98376.3677.742340.43813.065527.78969.982106.02251.811671.14237.1914,478.080.250.90171.710720.342
TG04-6499.8813.88154.4628.72230.85156.1544.02131.516.6286.2218.0858.2511.42110.9123.21084.280.941.7259.279261.263
TG04-72775.420.956.740.7435.097.060.61737.4416.54223.5488.32403.4283.56760.4136.661771.080.121.7851.119080.150
TG04-82794.045.0127.32.8614.379.741.8734.1215.57212.2785.41397.1683.35786.44143.271818.740.321.6015.087780.176
TG04-96389.847.6982.637.1141.4837.4913.63109.2343.18494.47182.91832.58177.391737.5340.644107.930.652.48133.9410351.797
TG04-108827.0611.7393.2410.363.5169.4422.52277.35100.4951.6279.321040.29192.071671.72287.545071.030.51.89159.1510610.196
TG04-114480.424.442.644.3424.8120.286.9768.4729.99372.03140.38610.02122.441099.77189.772736.310.572.1724.518260.299
TG04-124130.613.348.924.2125.5125.067.1684.6132.74361.91124.92528.07106980.19172.462505.060.482.9257.029210.528
1–sigma error for estimation of element concentration is 4–8%; **T °C = (5080/(6.01 − log (Ti)) − 273.15 [38].
Table
Table 3. Age and geodynamics of Paleoproterozoic granites, Lesser Himalayan Sequences, from northwest to northeast.
Table 3. Age and geodynamics of Paleoproterozoic granites, Lesser Himalayan Sequences, from northwest to northeast.
RegionRock TypeAgeRemark
Askot (Kumaun Lesser Himalaya) [65]Granite gneiss and porphyritic granite gneissCa. 1857 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		Arc-related
Askot (Kumaun Lesser Himalaya) [66]Augen gneissCa. 1810 Ma (Whole-rock Rb–Sr)–
Ramgarh (Kumaun Lesser Himalaya) [67]Granite gneissCa. 1765 Ma (Whole-rock Rb–Sr)–
Rangit window (Lesser Himalaya of Darjeeling–Sikkim) [68]PegmatiteCa. 1850 Ma (Ar–Ar muscovite)–
Lingste (MCT zone, Sikkim Himalaya) [69,70]Ortho gneissCa. 1840 Ma
Ca. 1830 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		–
Bomdila (Arunachal Lesser Himalaya) [71,72,73]Granite gneissCa. 1743 Ma
Ca. 1752 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		Formed by partial melting of metasediments
Shang (Besham, NW Himalaya, Pakistan) [74]Ortho gneissCa. 1864 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		–
Wangtu (MCT zone, Sutlej valley) [75]Ortho gneissCa. 1.8 Ga Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		–
Jutogh Gr (MCT zone, Sutlej valley) [76]LeucograniteCa. 1810 Ma
(U–Pb zircon/uranite)		Formed by crustal melting
Debguru (Kumaun Lesser Himalaya) [77]Granite gneissCa. 1856 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		–
Along Mandakini River
(Kumaun Lesser Himalaya) [77]		Granite gneissCa. 1865 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		–
Amritpur (Kumaun Lesser Himalaya) [78]GraniteCa. 1880 Ma (Whole-rock Rb–Sr)–
Kada and Lhagoi kangari (Tibet Greater Himalayan sequence) [79]Monzonitic granite gneissesCa. 1811 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		–
Ulleri (Nepal Lesser Himalaya) [80]Ortho gneissCa. 1831 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		–
Daling orthogneiss (Lesser Himalaya of Bhutan) [81]Ortho gneissCa. 1884 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		–
Salari (Arunachal Lesser Himalaya) [82]GraniteCa. 1749 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		Arc-related
Far–Eastern Nepal
(Taplejung) [83]		Orthogneiss1915 ± 15 MaRift-related granitoids
Larji–Kullu–Rampur window (NW Himalaya) [12]Meta-rhyolite and granite gneissCa. 1.84 Ga
(Zircon Pb–Pb evaporation)		Formed by melting of Archean crust
The lesser Himalayan sequence of Nepal Himalaya [13]Granitic orthogneiss and metavolcanicsCa. 1780 to1880 Ma (U–Pb zircon)Arc-related
Tawaghat (Kumaun Lesser Himalaya) [27]Granite gneissCa. 1906 Ma (Whole-rock Rb–Sr)–
Chiplakot (Kumaun Lesser Himalaya) [47]Granite gneissCa. 1924 Ma (U–Pb zircon)Arc-related
Munsiari augen gneiss (Kumaun Lesser Himalaya) [47]GneissesCa. 1955 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		–
Bandal (MCT zone Himachal Himalaya) [48]Ortho gneissCa. 1860 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		Formed by partial melting of metasediments
Bhatwari (Garhwal Lesser Himalaya) [49]GneissesCa. 1940 Ma
(U–Pb zircon)		Arc-related
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Mishra, S.; Slabunov, A.I.; Svetov, S.A.; Kervinen, A.V.; Nesterova, N.S. Zircons from Collisional Granites, Garhwal Himalaya, NW India: U–Th–Pb Age, Geochemistry and Protolith Constraints. Minerals 2021, 11, 1071. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11101071

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Mishra S, Slabunov AI, Svetov SA, Kervinen AV, Nesterova NS. Zircons from Collisional Granites, Garhwal Himalaya, NW India: U–Th–Pb Age, Geochemistry and Protolith Constraints. Minerals. 2021; 11(10):1071. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11101071

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Mishra, Sumit, Alexander I. Slabunov, Sergei A. Svetov, Anna V. Kervinen, and Natalia S. Nesterova. 2021. "Zircons from Collisional Granites, Garhwal Himalaya, NW India: U–Th–Pb Age, Geochemistry and Protolith Constraints" Minerals 11, no. 10: 1071. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11101071

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