Open-Source FPGA Coprocessor for the Doppler Emulation of Moving Fluids
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Fluid Model
3. FPGA Implementation of the Scatterer Generator
3.1. Preliminaries
3.2. Dynamics of the Input Parameters
3.3. Pipeline Implementation and Dynamics of the Calculations
3.4. The Scatterer Generator Co-Processor
3.5. FPGA Integration of the SG IP
- -
- a processor that sets and commands the SG IP through the input memory mapped bus;
- -
- an adder chain where the scatterer accumulations of Equation (4) are performed;
- -
- quick access to a large memory buffer (e.g., DDR memory) where the scatterer matrix is stored.
- -
- it programs the DMA to move the data corresponding to the samples to be generated into the IN FIFO of one of the Op. Blocks;
- -
- it programs the SG IP to generate the new samples, which are added to the old data and moved into the OUT FIFO;
- -
- it programs the DMA to move the data back to its original position in DDR.
3.6. Flow Emulator: An Example of SG IP Employment
4. Experiments and Results
4.1. Performence of the SG IP: Resources, Througput, Precision
4.2. Experiments
5. Discussion and Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Acronym | Meaning | Unit |
---|---|---|
PRI | Pulse Repetition Interval | s |
PRF | Pulse Repetition Frequency | Hz |
FPGA | Field Programmable Gate Array | - |
VHDL | VHSIC Hardware Description Language | - |
SoC | System-on-Chip | - |
EDP | Electronics Doppler Phantom | - |
SV | Sample Volume | m |
SG IP | Scatterer Generator Intellectual Property | - |
DMA | Direct Memory Access | - |
DDR | Double Data Rate | - |
ALM | Adaptive Logic Module | - |
DSP | Digital Signal Processor | - |
SOM | System On Module | - |
SNR | Signal-to-Noise Ratio | - |
FFT | Fast Fourier Transform | - |
References
- Skliarova, I. Accelerating Population Count with a Hardware Co-Processor for MicroBlaze. J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2021, 11, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kołek, K.; Firlit, A.; Piątek, K.; Chmielowiec, K. Analysis of the Practical Implementation of Flicker Measurement Coprocessor for AMI Meters. Energies 2021, 14, 1589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Safieh, M.; Thiers, J.-P.; Freudenberger, J. A Compact Coprocessor for the Elliptic Curve Point Multiplication over Gaussian Integers. Electronics 2020, 9, 2050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, P.; Xiao, Z.; Wang, X.; Chen, L.; Wang, C.; An, F. A multi-core object detection coprocessor for multi-scale/type classification applicable to IoT devices. Sensors 2020, 20, 6239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nieto, A.; Vilarino, D.L.; Brea, V.M. Precision: A Reconfigurable SIMD/MIMD Coprocessor for Computer Vision Systems-on-Chip. IEEE Trans. Comput. 2016, 65, 2548–2561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rudnicki, K.; Stefański, T.P.; Żebrowski, W. Open-Source Coprocessor for Integer Multiple Precision Arithmetic. Electronics 2020, 9, 1141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, N.; Jiang, T.; Zhang, L.; Zhou, F.; Ge, F. A Reconfigurable Convolutional Neural Network-Accelerated Coprocessor Based on RISC-V Instruction Set. Electronics 2020, 9, 1005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shah, N.; Chaudhari, P.; Varghese, K. Runtime Programmable and Memory Bandwidth Optimized FPGA-Based Coprocessor for Deep Convolutional Neural Network. IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. Learn. Syst. 2018, 29, 5922–5934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ricci, S.; Meacci, V. Data-adaptive coherent demodulator for high dynamics pulse-wave ultrasound applications. Electronics 2018, 7, 434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhang, Z.; Wang, X.; Hao, Q.; Xu, D.; Zhang, J.; Liu, J.; Ma, J. High-efficiency parallel cryptographic accelerator for real-time guaranteeing dynamic data security in embedded systems. Micromachines 2021, 12, 560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kundi, D.-E.; Khalid, A.; Aziz, A.; Wang, C.; O’Neill, M.; Liu, W. Resource-shared crypto-coprocessor of AES Enc/Dec With SHA-3. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I Regul. Pap. 2020, 67, 4869–4882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hwang, G.B.; Cho, K.N.; Han, C.Y.; Oh, H.W.; Yoon, Y.H.; Lee, S.E. Lossless decompression accelerator for embedded processor with GUI. Micromachines 2021, 12, 145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ricci, S.; Ramalli, A.; Bassi, L.; Boni, E.; Tortoli, P. Real-Time Blood Velocity Vector Measurement Over a 2-D Region. IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control 2017, 65, 201–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wiklund, J.; Shahram, I.; Stading, M. Methodology for in-line rheology by ultrasound Doppler velocity profiling and pressure difference techniques. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2007, 62, 4277–4293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ricci, S.; Meacci, V.; Birkhofer, B.; Wiklund, J. FPGA-Based System for In-Line Measurement of Velocity Profiles of Fluids in Industrial Pipe Flow. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2017, 64, 3997–4005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoskins, P.R. Simulation and Validation of Arterial Ultrasound Imaging and Blood Flow. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 2008, 34, 693–717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kotzé, R.; Ricci, S.; Birkhofer, B.; Wiklund, J. Performance tests of a new non-invasive sensor unit and ultrasound electronics. Flow Meas. Instrum. 2016, 48, 104–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tortoli, P.; Guidi, F.; Guidi, G.; Atzeni, C. Spectral velocity profiles for detailed ultrasound flow analysis. IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control 1996, 43, 654–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, S.; Hoskins, P.; Anderson, T.; McDicken, W. An acoustic injection test object for colour flow imaging systems. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 1998, 24, 161–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gittins, J.; Martin, K. The leicester doppler phantom—A digital electronic phantom for ultrasound pulsed doppler system testing. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 2010, 36, 647–655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Russo, D.; Ricci, S. Electronic flow emulator for the test of ultrasound doppler sensors. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2021, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans, D.H. Doppler Ultrasound: Physics, Instrumentation, and Clinical Applications; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Ricci, S.; Meacci, V. FPGA-Based Doppler Frequency Estimator for Real-Time Velocimetry. Electronics 2020, 9, 456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gran, F.; Jakobsson, A.; Jensen, J.A. Adaptive spectral doppler estimation. IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control 2009, 56, 700–714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Newhouse, V.L.; Varner, L.W.; Bendick, P.J. Geometrical Spectrum Broadening in Ultrasonic Doppler Systems. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1977, BME-24, 478–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Avalon® Interface Specifications, Intel, MNL-AVABUSRE. 2021. Available online: https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/programmable/us/en/pdfs/literature/manual/mnl_avalon_spec.pdf (accessed on 2 November 2021).
- Tortoli, P.; Bassi, L.; Boni, E.; Dallai, A.; Guidi, F.; Ricci, S. ULA-OP: An advanced open platform for ultrasound research. IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control 2009, 56, 2207–2216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Russo, D.; Ricci, S. FPGA Implementation of a Synchronization Circuit for Arbitrary Trigger Sequences. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 2019, 69, 5251–5259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ekroll, I.K.; Swillens, A.; Segers, P.; Dahl, T.; Torp, H.; Lovstakken, L. Simultaneous quantification of flow and tissue velocities based on multi-angle plane wave imaging. IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control 2013, 60, 727–738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boni, E.; Yu, A.C.H.; Freear, S.; Jensen, J.A.; Tortoli, P. Ultrasound Open Platforms for Next-Generation Imaging Technique Development. IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control 2018, 65, 1078–1092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
U0.16 | U0.16 | U10.14 | U0.16 | U0.16 | S1.10 | U0.10 | U0.10 |
Address | Parameter |
---|---|
0 h | |
1 h | |
2 h | |
3 h | |
4 h | |
5 h | |
6 h | |
7 h | |
8 h | Go |
ALMs | Memory Bits | DSPs | Freq. |
---|---|---|---|
77 | 15872 | 8 | 150 MHz |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ricci, S. Open-Source FPGA Coprocessor for the Doppler Emulation of Moving Fluids. Micromachines 2021, 12, 1549. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi12121549
Ricci S. Open-Source FPGA Coprocessor for the Doppler Emulation of Moving Fluids. Micromachines. 2021; 12(12):1549. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi12121549
Chicago/Turabian StyleRicci, Stefano. 2021. "Open-Source FPGA Coprocessor for the Doppler Emulation of Moving Fluids" Micromachines 12, no. 12: 1549. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi12121549