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Review

A Commented Review of Eco-Product Value Realization and Ecological Industry and Its Enlightenment for Agroforestry Ecosystem Services in the Karst Ecological Restoration

by
Ying Yang
1,2,
Kangning Xiong
1,2,*,
Huiqiong Huang
1,2,3,
Jie Xiao
1,2,
Biliang Yang
1,2 and
Yu Zhang
4
1
School of Karst Science, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China
2
State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification Control, Guiyang 550001, China
3
College of Public Management, Guizhou University of Finance and Economics, Guiyang 550025, China
4
Department of Resource Management, Tangshan Normal University, Tangshan 063000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2023, 14(3), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030448
Submission received: 18 December 2022 / Revised: 16 February 2023 / Accepted: 17 February 2023 / Published: 22 February 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improvement of Forest Ecosystem Functions in Karst Desertification Control)
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Abstract

:
The achievement of eco-product value and the growth of eco-industry can boost the economic advancement of karst areas. The findings of a statistical analysis of 520 relevant studies reveal the following: (1) From a time series perspective, the amount of papers increase with each wave of research; (2) contents mainly concentrate on four aspects, namely, ecosystem services supply (8.46%), value accounting (10.58%), value realization (37.88%), and eco-industry (30.38%); (3) the study areas are primarily concentrated in Asia (85.96%), Europe (7.12%), and North America (4.04%), most of which are located in China’s karst areas with vulnerable ecological environments and regions that are aware of eco-product values; and (4) research frontiers are reflected through four aspects of the ecosystem, namely, services supply, value accounting, value realization, and the eco-industry. Based on the analysis in this paper, it can be concluded that paths, mechanisms, and models for eco-product value realization are still slow. Therefore, to support the growth of karst agroforestry ecosystem services, it is imperative to further research the capacity of agroforestry ecosystem services supply, value accounting systems, ecological compensation mechanisms, the value realization models of eco-products, and the formation mechanism of eco-industries.

1. Introduction

Eco-environmental issues are some of the most heated researched topics in the world today [1]. Ecological restoration plays an important role in restoring degraded, damaged, and crumbled ecosystems to a long-term and stable state of health [2,3]. Ecological restoration is not only an essential step in improving the ecological environment in China [4], but also plays a crucial role in moving toward a more ecological society [5]. It is pertinent to the nation’s ecological security [6] and is crucial to pushing forward green development [7] and fostering a more harmonious relationship between human beings and nature [8]. In recent years, ecological restoration research has developed rapidly around the world, and it is being actively promoted in China [9]. The global proportion of relevant Chinese scientific research achievements has increased exponentially, but its global influence still needs to be strengthened [10]. This research helps in propeling the advancement of karst ecological restoration.
Global karst regions account for about 10% to 15% of continental land areas and are inhabited by a quarter of the world’s population, forming a special ecological environment system with strong regionality, integrity, and comprehensiveness [11,12]. They are mostly distributed on the Mediterranean coast, in the eastern United States, and the karst mountains of southwestern China [13]. Old, hard carbonate rocks with inadequate water-holding ability can be found in the Mediterranean and on the Asian continent [14]. Carbonate rock formations in China are wide and strong, and the karst types are widespread, with numerous types and styles [15]. However, in the southeastern United States, carbonates are less troublesome than those in southern China and tertiary macroporosity is common [14]. Yunnan, Guizhou, and other regions in southwestern China are the most concentrated areas of karst distribution in the country, with a total area of 1.7608 million km2, of which the distribution zones of exposed and semi-exposed carbonate rocks account for 41.3% of the total area [15]. In karst areas of southwest China, due to the fragility of the environment and the influence of human factors, a large degree of damage to the environment has occurred, leading to the emergence of many environmental problems including karst desertification [15,16].
Ecosystem services are widely described as the benefits that people obtain from natural ecological processes [17,18]. Ecosystem services are classified by the MA as provision, support, and regulation, as well as cultural services. The products obtained from ecosystems are called provision services. The benefits derived from the regulation of ecosystem processes are called stewardship services. Cultural services refer to the nonmaterial benefits, usually spiritual enrichment, intellectual abilities, perception, entertainment, and aesthetic enjoyment, gained from ecosystems. Support services comprise those processes necessary to support the above services, such as the production of oxygen in the atmosphere, soil structure, and soil retainment [19]. However, one of the most debatable facets of ecosystem services is the question of the valuation of services [20].
Agroforestry is the deliberate integration of shrubs and trees into crop and animal farming systems, which can strengthen agricultural output and provide ecosystem services [21,22,23,24,25,26]. In ancient Mayan cultures, agroforestry was used for crop output and forest management in environmentally sensitive karst areas [27] and continues to play a role in numerous places of the agrarian systems. After years of government benefits, it can be seen that the development of agroforestry in karst areas of southwest China, focused on the Guizhou Plateau, has not merely optimized the ecological benefits of both agroforestry and ground and water conservation efforts [28], but has also controlled the effects of soil erosion, improved the productivity of karst desertified karst land, and protected soil animal diversity [29,30]. Since the current research on agroforestry ecosystem services in karst areas has not been able to uncover the internal development mechanisms, the agroforestry ecosystem services explored are relatively isolated (as can be seen in soil and water preservation, production application, and land degradation restoration, etc.), and often lag behind regional studies. The improvement of ecosystem services has even become a constraint on the coordinated development of human-land relations [31]. There are few studies on the value realization of agroforestry eco-industries and eco-products. Therefore, by studying the research progress on the worth achievement of the eco-industry and eco-products, the development of these karst agroforestry factors can be promoted.
For the first time, “eco-product” was proposed in China, and the eco-products were primary products in the ecosystem, such as leaves, twigs, etc. [32]. At present, there is no common agreement on the definition. Scholars have interpreted the concept of eco-products from different perspectives. There are three main understandings of what an eco-product is. The first perspective relates eco-products to ecosystem services, since they are healthy natural ecosystems that benefit people [33,34]. The second view considers the co-products of man and nature to be eco-products [35]. The third view posits that eco-products can also be described by other names, such as eco-labeled goods, green-labeled goods, eco-design products, eco-friendly products, and non-polluting products [36]. Some scholars considered eco-products to be ecosystem services, arguing that agroforestry products are associated with human beings providing ecosystem provision services [37]. In summary, scholars have yet to reach an agreement regarding the concept and categorization of eco-products. Moreover, the worth of eco-products is difficult to account for and there is little in-depth discussion on the topic. Therefore, this paper presents key scientific issues that can help in advancing the study of the realization of eco-product value.
The eco-industry is an emerging industry that follows the precepts of industrial ecology as well as circular economy, is predicated on ecosystem carrying capacity, and collaborates with natural, economic, technological, social, environmental, and other systems [38]. In karst areas, due to their special geographical environment, to achieve environmental enhancement and economic growth, the derivative industries of karst desertification control must be put in place first and must be organically integrated along with agricultural economic development [39]. It can be seen that eco-industries in the field of karst ecological restoration can contribute to regional economic progress by clarifying the link between the realization of the value of eco-products and eco-industries, which can further have an illuminating effect on the development of the agroforestry industry.
Research on eco-industries and eco-product values in karst regions has been ongoing for the past 40 years. This report investigates that research and reviews its major developments and major accomplishments in four areas, namely, the ecosystem service supply, value accounting, value realization and eco-industry, and recommends key scientific and technological issues. It can not only offer a scientific basis for the study of agroforestry ecosystem services in karst regions, but can also maintain the integrity and sustainability of the ecosystem, and ultimately lead to the coexistence of humans and environment.

2. Materials and Methods

To locate relevant studies, a search was conducted using the databases Web of Science (WOS) (https://www.webofscience.com, accessed on 30 June 2022) and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) (https://www.cnki.net, accessed on 30 June 2022). This study used the following search terms: “Eco-industry” and “eco-product” together and “eco-industry”, “ecosystem services”, “eco-product”, and “value realization”, as well as “ecosystem services” in combination with “value realization”. The removal of irrelevant papers was performed via artificial selection. The search had a 30 June 2022 deadline. The search retrieved 520 relevant Chinese and English language studies, of which 158 were in English, including 127 theses, 27 review papers, 3 proceeding papers, and 1 study that was published online; however, there were no editorials or book chapters. In the English-language journals, 78 articles were written by Chinese scholars. Of the remaining 362 articles from Chinese periodicals, 208 were from core Chinese journals, 64 were Master’s theses, 13 were Doctoral dissertations, 16 were conferences papers, 58 were articles from newspapers, 1 was a book, and 2 were achievements. No yearbooks, patents or standards were found. The procedure for the literature screening and search is depicted in Figure 1.
We ultimately obtained 362 Chinese publications and 158 English articles after deduplication. The top 10 contributors with numerous papers on the topic were Yihong Zhou (7 papers), Xiahui Wang (5 papers), Leshan Jin (5 papers), Xiaolong Gao (5 papers), Linbo Zhang (4 papers), Shuilin Qiu (4 papers), Huiyi Yu (4 papers), Jinnan Wang (3 papers), Zhiyun Ouyang (3 papers), and Bowen Sun (3 papers). Regardless of the author’s placement within the study, all authors were taken into account when determining the number of research papers by each author.

3. Results

3.1. Annual Distribution of Articles

There are roughly three stages regarding research on the realization of eco-product value and the eco-industry both domestically and abroad (Figure 2). In the first stage (1985–2009), there were only about 55 total studies and not many articles published yearly—the topic was still in its early phases. In the second stage (2010–2020), there were some significant fluctuations in the number of articles; however, it was still in a stage of slow growth—only 101 articles were published during that period. In the third stage (2021–30 June 2022), there was a trend was toward rapid growth, and there were currently many articles published during this period.

3.2. Content Distribution of Documents

Of the studied categories, ecosystem service supply papers comprise 8.46% of the total number, value accounting comprise 10.58%, value realization comprise 37.88%, eco-industry comprise 30.38%, and other categories comprise 12.69% of the total papers published (Figure 3). The ratios of these articles show that eco-products are worth attaining and the state of eco-industries is improving. However, current research in this area still focuses on how eco-product value is realized, and how the eco-industry is established, while ecosystem service supply and value accounting is still in the exploratory and development stages.

3.3. Distribution of Study Areas of Literature

The development of eco-products is unbalanced due to the variations in regional natural, economic, and social conditions and exhibits powerful regional characteristics (Figure 4). As the graph illustrates, the areas under research are primarily in coastal countries in Asia, Europe, North America, and Australia. However, the majority of these are in China. Asian studies account for 85.96% of publications, which is related to government policy assistance, research group focus, and possibly the use of CNKI databases. Relevant articles in Asia have been primarily published in China in Asia. Global problems including rapid population growth, food insecurity, resource shortages, and ecological pollution, have necessitated that eco-products and sustainable development must be significant aspects of the 21st century society. As a result, publications that emphasize the value of eco-product realization and the overall advantages of eco-industries have gradually expanded. Relevant European studies account for 7.12% and North America accounts for 4.04%, which is more advanced than the research output of other continents. As a result, numerous European nations and research institutes have begun to pay attention to eco-product worth realization and eco-industries, and thus the number of publications is increasing steadily.

3.4. Institution Distribution of the Literature

The distribution of eco-industry-related organizations and eco-product value realization was interpreted and analyzed. This paper utilizes the employer institution of the primary authors of the available literature as units, since there are multiple institutions with relevant publications and only a limited amount of graph space. Only those units with more than four published papers were considered in the selected Chinese literature and only institutions with one paper in foreign studies, totaling 10 units (Figure 5). The top Chinese institutions (Figure 5a) in terms of the number of studies comprise the Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (10), the Beijing Forestry University (10), the Beijing Normal University (9), the Environmental Planning Institute of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment (8), the China University Of Geosciences and China Agricultural University and Finance and Economics University Of Lanzhou (7), and the Zhejiang University and Guizhou Normal University (5). The top English-language institutions that have published two relevant articles include Aarhus University, the National Technical University of Athens, Bangor University, the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, and the University of Helsinki (Figure 5b). Among all research units, there are more domestic than foreign research units. Almost all of the top research units are agricultural and forestry institutions of higher education, which are located in both forested and highly developed regions.

3.5. Research Stages

According to the literature’s annual allocation chart, in 1985, the first studies on eco-product worth achievement and eco-industries were conducted, thus giving the field an approximately 40-year history. Three stages of research have been identified regarding the value of eco-products and eco-industries, namely, the beginning stage, the sluggish growth stage, and the rapid growth stage (Table 1), which is in line with the research background and main features of this period.

4. Research Progress and Landmark Results

4.1. Ecosystem Service Supply

4.1.1. To Study the Environmental Costs and Advantages of Ecosystem Service Supply Capacity, the Environment’s Mechanism Should Be Understood

The capacity of the ecosystem to provide services is closely connected to the environment. In the karst environment, the energy conversion pathway of the ecosystem is fragile and sensitive. For instance, once a forest is destroyed, the material and energy exchange of the ecosystem will be temporarily interrupted, and the ecological balance will be abruptly changed. If the forest is destroyed, the exchange of materials and energy in the ecosystem will be temporarily disrupted, and the ecological balance will be abruptly changed, even to the extent that the ecological environment may not be conducive to human survival [11]. This shows that the ecological environment has a certain influence on eco-product supply capacity. Due to the variability of each active component’s demand for various nutrients in the soil, some scholars analyzed the nutrient demand of Lonicera japonica Thunb. and showed that different components of honeysuckle showed different accumulation and change patterns in different grades of stone desertification [41], further illustrating the impact of different grades of rock desertification on eco-products. Broadly increased crop yields, reduced soil erosion, the preservation of biodiversity, improved soil fertility, carbon sequestration, and lower greenhouse gas emissions are only a few of the many advantages of agroforestry systems [42,43,44]. Additionally, some researchers have demonstrated that vineyards can offer a variety of ecosystem services, including weed and pest control, water supply and purification, field accessibility, soil species diversity, carbon sequestration, poverty alleviation, and the reduction in land degradation [45,46,47,48]. Therefore, the karst agroforestry ecosystem services are closely related to the surrounding environment. Government initiatives to enhance environmental protection will help in increasing the provision of agroforestry ecosystem services in karst zones. Various enterprise departments should also strengthen their awareness regarding environmental protection. This will help in maintaining the ecosystem service role and ensuring the supply capacity at the source.

4.1.2. Study of the Crop Composition and Configuration Relationship of Ecosystem Services to Develop a Theoretical Foundation for Their Supply Capacity

On the issue of eco-product supply capacity and enhancement, some scholars summarized the research content as mainly involving two aspects of ecosystem services and public goods supply capacity in foreign countries [49]. Ecosystem service supply refers to the services produced by the regional ecosystem over a specific time frame [50]. Some characteristics, such as those pertaining to the growth form, composition, and configuration of woody plants and crops [51] affect the system function and ecosystem service supply. Numerous studies have demonstrated that preserving ecosystem stability can help in boosting biodiversity [52,53]. Therefore, to advance the study of agroforestry ecosystems, discussions on the existence of a link between ecosystem structure and stability are necessary [54]. In summary, it is important to explore an agroforestry model in karst areas that can protect the environment and reap economic benefits at the same time. Scholars have also continued to explore the composition and configuration of different agroforestry methods. Table 2 summarizes the characteristics of different agroforestry patterns in karst areas.
In addition, humans can protect the ecosystem through social means to improve supply capacity [50]. The supply of public eco-products mainly concerns how to combine market mechanisms to improve supply capacity [55]. Chinese scholars have elucidated the supply capacity of eco-product from various aspects. For example, Li and Rong used the PPP model to strengthen the eco-product supply capacity in a new way. The PPP (Public–Private Partnership) model is a public–private partnership. The PPP model is a means for government departments and the private sector to entrust enterprises or other social organizations with the building of public facilities or the provision of public services to the public through the signing of long-term agreements. By appropriately cooperating with producers, the government can further promote the adoption of ecological production methods in the industry, compensate for the effects of the long production cycle and slow cost recovery in the industry, encourage and stabilize the development of industrial production, and increase the production of eco-products in a broader context [56].
Table
Table 2. The characteristics of different agroforestry patterns in karst areas.
Table 2. The characteristics of different agroforestry patterns in karst areas.
Agroforestry PatternScalable PatternFeatureDistributionSource
Rosa rugosa Thunb. + Glycine max (Linn.) Merr., Rosa rugosa Thunb. + Malus pumila Mill. + Glycine max (Linn.) Merr., Rosa rugosa Thunb. + Zea mays L.Rosa rugosa Thunb. + Glycine max (Linn.) Merr.The Rosa rugosa Thunb. + Glycine max (Linn.) Merr. mode was beneficial for the improvement of soil mite diversity.ChinaYang et al., 2021 [57]
Forest Chinese herbal medicine, Forest + Grain, Forest + GrassForest Chinese herbal medicineThe agroforestry of forest Chinese herbal medicine appeared to provide the greatest impact on soil infiltration, followed by forest + grass.ChinaHe et al., 2020 [58]
Zea mays L. Pattern, Malus pumila Mill. Pattern, Malus pumila Mill. + Glycine max (Linn.) Merr. Pattern, Pyrus spp. Pattern, Pyrus spp. + Cucurbita moschata Duch. Pattern, Punica granatum L. Pattern, Punica granatum L. + Grass + Sheep Pattern (PGSP)Malus pumila Mill. Pattern,
Pyrus spp. Pattern, Punica granatum L. + Grass + Sheep Pattern (PGSP)		The multilevel agroforestry growing and boosting methods used in PGSP were able to optimize the interaction between tree–grass–sheep, and enhance both the environmental and financial benefits.ChinaZou et al., 2019 [59]
Forest + Lanxangia tsao-ko (Crevost and Lemarié) M.F.Newman and Škorničk.,
Artificial forest + Lanxangia tsao-ko (Crevost and Lemarié) M.F.Newman and Škorničk.,
Zea mays L. + Lanxangia tsao-ko (Crevost and Lemarié) M.F.Newman and Škorničk. 		Forest + Lanxangia tsao-ko (Crevost and Lemarié) M.F.Newman and Škorničk. Of these three types of agroforestry system, the most productive model was forest + Lanxangia tsao-ko (Crevost and Lemarié) M.F.Newman and Škorničk., the production of which was remarkably greater than the other systems (p < 0.05).ChinaJin et al., 2016 [60]
Shellac + Zea mays L. Shellac + Zea mays L. The Shellac + Zea mays L. agroforest ecosystem had positive effects on the protection of ground-dwelling ants.ChinaLu et al., 2016 [61]
Hornbeam + Oak + BeechHornbeam + Oak + BeechThe overall stock of soil organic carbon is high, regardless of land use history.SlovakiaAhmed et al., 2012 [62]
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. + Camellia sinensis, Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. + CoffeeAlstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. + Camellia sinensisIn terms of total biomass per plant, the Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. + Camellia sinensis model is slightly better than the Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. + coffee model.ChinaLiu et al., 2008 [63]
Eucommia ulmoides + Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz., Eucommia ulmoides
+ Perilla frutescens, Eucommia ulmoides +
Capsicum annuum L.		Eucommia ulmoides + Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz.In economic output, the order is: Eucommia ulmoides + Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz.’s model > Eucommia ulmoides + Capsicum annuum L.’s model > Eucommia ulmoides + Perilla frutescens’s model.ChinaAn et al., 2001 [64]

4.1.3. From the Potential Supply Capacity and Actual Supply Capacity of Ecosystem Services, We Designed and Built the Ecological Connection Chain of Eco-Industries, and Thus Consolidated the Theoretical Foundation for Ecosystem Services Supply Capacity

Supply is split into potential supply and actual supply based on the ecosystem carrying capacity and the extent of the human use of ecosystem services. Of the two, potential supply is the capacity of ecosystems to deliver services over time in a sustainable way, and actual supply is the product or ecological process that is consumed or used by people [65]. Some scholars pointed out that water filtered from the karst topography areas (service supply unit) is provided as drinking water to the residents of the cities (service use unit) through long-distance underground transport (service connection area) [66]. It can be seen that increasing the supply capacity of karst regions can further boost the availability of eco-products in these regions. The potential supply capacity of eco-products is related to the economy; for instance, the availability of eco-products from the forest depends on its ability to continue growing sustainably. Farmers will often turn to illegal practices or stop producing forest eco-products if government subsidies to landowners are provided at only a very low level. Therefore, providing farmers with adequate and timely compensation is an efficient incentive to increase their motivation to supply forest eco-products [67]. However, the supply of eco-products is often insufficient. The main reasons are the complete value return and intergenerational value return [68], the lack of quality standards for eco-products [69], the government supply model, and the lack of cooperation between governments [70,71] and other reasons.
The development of eco-industries is closely related to the supply of eco-products. According to research from certain foreign academics, storage time has the greatest impact on fruit quality, followed by output, storage temperature, humidity, and harvesting time [72]. Other scholars have shown that respiration and transpiration processes are the primary causes of post-harvest plant loss and poor quality [73]. Therefore, to keep the fruit fresh and promote the development of industry, the best solution is to shorten the travel time between the production areas and the demand areas. Moreover, processing plants can be set up near the origin of the eco-product in question, in order that the products can be directly purchased by manufacturers and processed into various types of food. On the one hand, this can promote the employment of farmers in karst areas and, on the other hand, it can promote the development of the local industrial chain.

4.2. Value Accounting

4.2.1. From the Perspective of Accounting Methods, Value Accounting and Evaluation of Eco-Product Area Provide a Good Theoretical Basis

It is challenging to evaluate eco-product value accurately. In 2013, the concept of gross ecosystem product (GEP) was first proposed by Ouyang et al., which was defined as “the final product that the ecosystem can provide for human life and social development and the sum of service value”, and the corresponding theoretical basis, accounting framework, and accounting method of GEP were proposed [74], which have been subsequently researched and applied by scholars and used for practical applications by governments at all levels. To date, many provinces [75,76,77,78] and regions have carried out GEP accounting. However, the improvement of the market mechanism is related to the transaction price. Therefore, fully calculating the eco-product supply is the key to the good marketization of an eco-product. Currently, there are three main ways to implement eco-product value accounting: (a) The functional price method [77]; (b) the equivalent factor method [79]; and (c) the ecological element method (based on the energy method) [80,81]. Based on the research results of Costanza, Xie et al. proposed the equivalent factor method [79].
Along with value-based approaches to financial assessment [82,83,84], in recent years, scholars have concentrated on quantitative assessment methods for spatial mapping and ecological modeling, in addition to value-based economic assessment methods. For instance, the AFES assessment tool, which was created using an empirical methodology, evaluates regulatory services [85]. The identification and mapping of cultural ecosystem services have been performed primarily using data from preference surveys and social value models of ecosystem services [86]. However, the majority of ecosystem services are not only undervalued, but also excluded from routine decision making. The sustainable use of ecosystem services and the alleviation of poverty both strongly depend on the value of ecosystem goods and services. Furthermore, people can indeed utilize the value of ecosystem services, assisting in the global integration of natural resources into daily decision-making processes [87]. Therefore, a full accounting of the value of agroforestry eco-products in karst regions can contribute to better decision-making and management.

4.2.2. From the Perspective of the Accounting Index System, Scholars Have Extensively Explored the Index System to Reasonably Calculate and Evaluate the Eco-Product Values

Provinces and regions across the country tend to build eco-product value accounting index systems. For example, in recent years, Zhang and Zou have established a GEP accounting index system that conforms to the features and main functions of the Yarlung Zangbo river basin based on reviewing the research progress of GEP accounting [88]. Liang et al. used the Pearl River Delta region as the research area and used the green GDP accounting theory to carry out the calculation of the gross economic and ecological production (GEEP), which showed that the effectiveness, as well as the quality of economic growth, in the Pearl River Delta region, continued to improve and that the regional economic environment displayed a trend toward coordinated development [89]. In addition, after the establishment of the indicator system, some scholars tend to study the policy formulation related to the value accounting of eco-products. For example, the paper by Yu et al., who, from the perspectives of standardization of ecological value accounting methods, parameter localization, the application of policy decision making, and eco-product transactions, put forward suggestions for promoting the transformation of Chinese ecological value accounting from academic research to practical management [90]. In karst regions, the value accounting system of agroforestry eco-products has not yet been developed, and should be further developed in the future.

4.3. Value Realization

4.3.1. The Analysis of Eco-Compensation Lays a Theoretical Foundation for Eco-Product Value Realization

Eco-compensation is an important form of eco-product value realization. International research on eco-compensation began in the 1970s, and while there were earlier related practices, these practices were not marked as eco-compensation. Terms related to ecological compensation are used internationally including payment for ecosystem services, compensation for ecosystem services, the market for environmental services, etc. Of these, “payment for ecosystem services” (PES for short) is widely used, reflecting the fact that countries have begun to achieve the valuation of ecosystem services and incorporate them into their economic decision-making processes [91]. PES is specifically defined as “resource transfers between social actors to establish incentives to harmonize individual and/or cooperative land utilization choices with social interests in natural resource management” [92]. Its primary aim is to obtain a consistent supply of ecosystem services [93]. However, since the social benefits of ecosystem services are intricate and varied, it is impossible to determine when payment is appropriate [94].
We focus especially on the interactions between institutional and ecological problems, which are currently underrepresented in the PES literature [94]. However, a number of scholars are studying it. For example, according to the spatial scale of benefit, the value realization of global eco-product should be transferred from the ecological beneficiaries to the eco-protectors, such as the eco-compensation of the German-Czech Elbe river basin and the eco-compensation of the US-Canadian Columbia river basin, etc.; the value realization of national eco-product should be transferred from the central to the local. For example, transfer payments for key ecological function areas and the project of returning farmland to forestland and grassland in China, the fallow land protection program in the United States and the protection program for environmentally sensitive areas in the United Kingdom. Moreover, the realization of the value of territorial eco-products should establish a horizontal transfer payment system between ecological protection areas and beneficiary areas, such as horizontal ecological compensation upstream and downstream of watersheds in China, the interstate fiscal balance fund in Germany, and the equalization transfer payment system in Australia [95]. However, in karst areas, ecological compensation systems for agroforestry eco-products are less common and research could be strengthened in the future.

4.3.2. The Analysis of the Mode of Eco-Product Value Realization Provides a Practical Basis for the Diversification of Eco-Products’ Worth Achievement Patterns

Promoting the realization of the value of eco-products is conducive to economic development. The existing research on this topic mainly focuses on the analysis of value realization models and specific cases [96]. At present, international and domestic studies are different, and scholars have analyzed the model of eco-product value realization from different angles. From the perspective of the leading initiator, eco-product value realization models can be categorized as government-led models, market-led models, social-led models, etc. The government-led model is still the main model for eco-product value realization under the current national conditions [95]. Wang et al. analyzed the value realization mode of eco-product from three perspectives: Material products, cultural service products, and regulatory services and goods. First, by relying on rich ecological resources and environmental quality, people can promote ecological material supply products’ value realization. Second, by developing ecological tourism and cultural industry features, people can deepen the cultural service class eco-product value realization. Finally, by exploring resource rights transfer and ecological compensation, they can promote the ecological regulating service of product value realization [97]. Liu asserts that there are three main approaches to appraising the worth of eco-products. These are the basic development type, the extended development type, and the supportive development type. On this basis, they can be further subdivided into seven specific models: Industrial ecological type, eco-industry type, property rights transaction type, eco-premium type, eco-compensation type, eco-initiative type, and green finance type [98]. In karst areas, different models for realizing the value of agroforestry eco-products should be explored under different grades of karst desertification and the best model should be identified.

4.4. Eco-Industry

The eco-industrial chain is the fundamental unit of an eco-industrial system [99], which improves the utilization of industrial resources by imitating the use of materials and power in a natural ecosystem [100]. The eco-chain structure pattern is comprised of four connections associated with the input viewpoint of eco-products: Eco-product chains, derivative chains, product requirement markets, and assisting industry chains [101]. Regarding the unique characteristics of eco-products, some scholars put forward a feasible eco-industry chain in this region. For example, Su et al. believed that the agricultural industry chain is able to systematically reduce negative services and convert certain by-products or waste types in the industry chain into inputs for another production process, thereby effectively reducing purchasing inputs and increasing the output of other associated products, such as fish or duck meat, etc., which increases the economic benefits of rice fields from 132% to 135% [102]. In some protected areas, according to the uniqueness of different eco-products, constructing corresponding eco-industry chains can better promote local economic development. For example, Wei and Zhao based on the analysis of the product background and the industrial uniqueness of the industrial development of nature reserves and through the construction and analysis of the eco-industry chain system model of nature reserves, attempted to solve the difficulty of supplying eco-products and protecting the nature reserve market. Effective development ideas are provided by the balanced, environmental sustainability of nature reserves [101].
In certain karst areas with a special geographical environment, combined with the surrounding environment, according to the characteristics of different eco-products, are suitable eco-industries models that can be developed to upgrade the growth of the eco-industry chain in the region. In the low-yielding rice paddies in the karst mountains of Guangxi, for instance, the experiment and demonstration of the “rice (Oryza sativa L.) + sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) + fish + mushroom (Agaricus campestris) + vegetable” mixed ecological agriculture model revealed that it was 8.4 times greater than in the comparison group (planting only two times the amount of the cropping rice) and the net earnings were 10.1 times more, which developed local economic and ecological benefits under this model [103]. On arable land at a slope of about 15 degrees in Bijie, Guizhou Province, a comparative technology demonstration trial of a potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) cross-slope cluster monopoly and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) down-slope cluster monopoly was conducted. According to the findings, the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) yield increased by 10.94%, maize (Zea mays L.) yield grew by 8.29%, compound yield increased by 10.17%, and compound production value improved by 9.36% when compared to the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) down-slope cluster planting treatment [104]. Researchers have demonstrated that industrial restructuring, which boosted the percentage of industry and services while decreasing the proportion of agriculture, also served to save soil [105]. Therefore, in the special karst environment, the region can choose to implement a developable agroforestry eco-product chain based on the features of the agroforestry eco-products.
The agroforestry ecosystem services provide the basis for the revitalization of agroforestry [31]. There is a growing demand for the growth of ecological mountain agriculture based on agroforestry in karst areas [106,107], which has gained the support and adoption of many scholars in succession [108,109]. However, the current agroforestry industry is characterized by a homogeneous stand structure, interspecies relationships, and a disconnect between industries and other problems [110,111,112]. The characteristics of agroforestry should be taken advantage of, such as its high efficiency, the capacity of intrinsically powered eco-products, and the ecological transformation of externally powered industries that can be used to promote eco-industrialization, environmental perception enhancement, and a higher demand for eco-products [113]. It is a comprehensive approach to optimizing and upgrading the various resources and crop groupings within the agroforestry ecosystem services, in order to achieve a multi-level and efficient use of energy and material cycles. The possibility of boosting the local economy and advancing the evolution of agroforestry ecosystem services in karst areas is presented by raising the worth of agroforestry ecosystem services.

5. Key Scientific Issues to Be Addressed

5.1. Creating a Framework for Calculating the Value of Agroforestry Ecosystem Services

The agroforestry ecosystem structure not only improves the ecological environment, but also increases its durability and restoration power since the rotation of crops in the specific structure minimizes pest problems, lessens contests and sickness, and boosts the soil’s fertility and crop yield [114]. At present, the karst desertification agroforestry governance model with comprehensive soil and water improvement as its core has developed into agroforestry ecological governance derivative industries, such as forest-fruit, forest-medicine, and forest-grass. One of its positive aspects resolves the paradox between humanity and the land by playing a win-win role in time and place for ecological, social, and economic benefits [115,116]. However, agroforestry’s contribution to the development of the eco-industry is based on the ecosystem services it offers. Therefore, clarifying the systems to realize the worth of agroforestry ecosystem services can better improve the economic development of karst areas and can also play a certain demonstration role. Many academics use the gross ecosystem product (GEP) to assess the value of eco-products directly, including items from agriculture, forestry, livestock, and fishing [117,118]. GEP indicators may be inflated and overlap with those for eco-products and traditional goods [113]. Since the realization of agroforestry ecosystem service value is an extremely complex process, various theories and viewpoints on agroforestry ecosystem service value accounting are constantly being debated and no one viewpoint dominates. Therefore, the discussion on the agroforestry ecosystem service value accounting of agroforestry is still a relatively large scientific question for the future.

5.2. In-Depth Study of Ecological Compensation Mechanisms for Agroforestry Ecosystem Services

China has investigated several ecological compensation models, primarily the compensation scheme for financial transfers from the government, the environmental resource tax and compensation system, the ecological resource producer payment compensation model, and the ecological damage compensation model [119]. For ecological compensation, the regional ecological compensation objects need to be determined and a regional ecological compensation framework must be built. In karst regions, agroforestry ecosystem services lack the establishment of a system of ecological compensation. The implementation of the compensation objects should be strengthened, and the framework should be used to make reasonable compensation, in order that it offers a certain theoretical foundation for the ecological compensation mechanism of agroforestry ecosystem services in karst ecological restoration.

5.3. Exploring the Pathways, Mechanisms, and Models for Realizing the Value of the Agroforestry Eco-Products

In regard to the existing research, due to the diversity and complexity of agroforestry ecosystem services, the current research focus is mainly on the worth realization mechanism of agroforestry ecosystem services; however, few scholars emphasize the worth realization of karst agroforestry ecosystem services. Appropriate agroforestry ecological services should be rationally designed for the environment, and the market’s crucial role in determining how to distribute agroforestry ecosystem services should be activated. At present, agroforestry ecosystem services in karst areas have a selective preference under the guidance of human values, and they focus a large amount of attention on regulating services while ignoring the importance of supply services and cultural services [31]. Focusing on the effectiveness and level of karst ecological restoration, we can focus on research on the supply services and cultural services of agroforestry ecosystem services. This can be achieved by comparing the varieties of agroforestry ecosystem services in different areas and exploring the worth realization paths, mechanisms, and modes of karst agroforestry ecosystem services through questionnaires, farmer interviews, etc.

5.4. In-Depth Study of the Formation Mechanisms of the Eco-Industry

Industrial colocalization, as well as ecological industrialization, are both theoretical and policy-based issues, and they have not yet been completely “solved”. In-depth research is also needed in theory, especially the dynamic, incentive, restraint, price, and investment mechanisms, as well as industrial regulation, industrial organization, market organization, and market regulation theories [120]. In addition, the coupling connection between ecological governance and industrial growth in ecologically fragile regions should be researched and a coupling collaboration extent prototype between ecological governance, as well as sourced ecological businesses in ecologically fragile places should be formed. The goal of these studies and models is to assist in methodically comprehending and properly assessing the coordination condition of environmental governance and the industrial economy in ecologically vulnerable places [121]. In the future, to explore the coupling relationship between karst agroforestry ecosystem services and eco-industries and the formation mechanism of the industry, research theory should be improved, contributing to the sustainable and coordinated development of agroforestry products and agroforestry industries in karst areas. Therefore, the best agroforestry models should be studied in karst ecological restoration areas to promote local development. Figure 6 depicts the ecological processes, by which different agroforestries form eco-industries.

5.5. Strengthen the Supply Ability of Agroforestry Ecosystem Services

Agroforestry ecosystem services are tangible products, as well as services provided by agroforestry ecosystems, that satiate the needs of both individuals and the environment through the synergistic impacts of biological and human production [122]. This demonstrates that the highlight of boosting the supply ability of agroforestry ecosystem services is regulating the productive agents of ecosystem services [123,124]. The market is significantly impacted by the agroforestry ecosystem services supply capacity. Agroforestry ecosystem services with a strong supply capacity and strong market demand will have better development and are generally able to form a certain scale of eco-industries, which will promote local development. In the future, on the basis of previous research, we will investigate and evaluate how to increase the supply of agroforestry ecosystem services, in order to provide more information for the achievement of the worth of agroforestry ecosystem services and the formation of eco-industries. Good products can help the local economy grow as well as help karst agroforestry ecosystem services and evaluation systems to flourish.

5.6. In-Depth Study of the Property Rights System of Agroforestry Ecosystem Services

Under normal circumstances, the ecosystem’s material supply function, which includes the provision of water resources, agricultural products, forest products, energy resources, etc., can be traded directly on the market. Cultural services, such as ecotourism and natural landscapes, can also be attached to related eco-industries, transforming them into clear property rights [97]. Therefore, the property rights of ecological material products and cultural service products are more clear than ecological regulation products. According to Zhou et al., there are currently several issues, such as unclear agroforestry ecosystem services property rights, a lack of an adequate system for accounting for the value of agroforestry ecosystem services, and limitations on the growth of the mechanism for realizing the worth of agroforestry ecosystem services. By enhancing the property rights system for natural resources and agroforestry ecosystem services, financial investment and ecological compensation mechanisms, market systems and price mechanisms, steps should be taken to establish a production product accounting mechanism and a financial support mechanism [125]. Therefore, the property rights of agroforestry ecosystem services in karst areas are clear, which is helpful for the growth of eco-industries and the comprehension of the value of karst agroforestry ecosystem services.

6. Conclusions

6.1. Conclusions

Studies in karst areas have been primarily concentrated in Asia, Europe, and North America, with the majority being dispersed in karst regions in China with a vulnerable ecological environment as well as eco-product worth accomplishment areas. The present value realization of eco-products and the eco-industries are still lacking a fully developed theoretical system, according to the research literature currently available. There is a need for more in-depth and expanded theoretical research. This study’s findings are presented as follows: (1) The ecosystem services supply capacity mainly focuses on the research on the environment where ecosystem services are located, the interaction of supply and demand, potential supply and actual supply capacity, and the findings of the low supply capacity of ecosystem services. (2) Ecosystem services value accounting and evaluation are mainly studied from two perspectives: The accounting method and the accounting system. At present, the agroforestry ecosystem services accounting method has not been unified. In the future, we might further deepen our research on ecosystem services value accounting and establish a unified scientific and reasonable agroforestry ecosystem services accounting research framework. (3) The main topics of this study comprise the paths, mechanisms, and models, among which eco-compensation is an important way for eco-product value realization. (4) The goal of eco-industry is to find suitable eco-industry models that will encourage the growth of the regional eco-industry chain.

6.2. Enlightenment

This paper outlines the six major scientific and technological issues that should be resolved, in order to determine the future direction of karst agroforestry ecosystem services. The following factors can be used to determine the future of agroforestry ecosystem services: (1) Accounting approaches and system standards for the value of agroforestry ecosystem services; (2) the in-depth study of ecological compensation mechanisms for agroforestry ecosystem services; (3) paths, mechanisms, and models for realizing the value of the agroforestry eco-products; (4) the formation mechanism of eco-industries; (5) the strengthening of the supply ability of agroforestry ecosystem services; (6) the in-depth study of the property rights system of agroforestry ecosystem services. These areas, which are rich in agroforestry ecosystem services and require a better accounting system for the regulation of agroforestry ecosystem services, are particularly suited as future research topics.

Author Contributions

All authors are contributed to the manuscript. Conceptualization, Y.Y. and K.X.; methodology, Y.Y.; validation, Y.Y. and H.H.; formal analysis, Y.Y. and J.X.; data curation, Y.Y. and H.H.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.Y.; writing—review and editing, Y.Y., K.X. and H.H.; visualization, Y.Y., B.Y. and Y.Z.; project administration, K.X.; funding acquisition, K.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Key Science and Technology Program of GuizhouProvence: Poverty Alleviation Model and Technology demonstration for Ecoindustries Derivated from the karst desertification control (No. 5411 2017 Qiankehe Pingtai Rencai), the Science and Technology Research Project of Higher Education Institutions in Hebei Province: Comparative study of model and technology for characteristic high efficiency forestry from the karst desertification control in North and South China Karst (No. QN2021412), and the China Overseas Expertise Introduction Program for Discipline Innovation: Overseas Expertise Introduction Center for South China Karst Eco-environment Discipline Innovation (D17016).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are openly available in (China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI)) at (https://www.cnki.net, accessed on 30 June 2022), and (Web of Science (WOS)) at (https://www.webofscience.com, accessed on 30 June 2022).

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for Shilian Jiang for her help in the presentation of Figure 4.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the designof the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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Figure 1. The research process illustrated from the initial search to the thorough screening using the study’s systematic mapping process (identification, screening, qualification, and inclusion). Database searches were used to find documents during the identification stage. Then, the papers that had been selected underwent the screening and eligibility phases for ecosystem service supply, value accounting, value realization, and eco-industry (by title, keywords, abstract, and full text articles). Ultimately, the study included articles that satisfied the eligibility requirements.
Figure 1. The research process illustrated from the initial search to the thorough screening using the study’s systematic mapping process (identification, screening, qualification, and inclusion). Database searches were used to find documents during the identification stage. Then, the papers that had been selected underwent the screening and eligibility phases for ecosystem service supply, value accounting, value realization, and eco-industry (by title, keywords, abstract, and full text articles). Ultimately, the study included articles that satisfied the eligibility requirements.
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Figure 2. The pattern in the yearly distribution of the study of the realization of eco-product value and the eco-industry.
Figure 2. The pattern in the yearly distribution of the study of the realization of eco-product value and the eco-industry.
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Figure 3. The literature classified by ecosystem service supply, value accounting, value realization, eco-industry, etc.
Figure 3. The literature classified by ecosystem service supply, value accounting, value realization, eco-industry, etc.
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Figure 4. The breakdown of the institutions and nations described in the study (due to space limitations, only countries with more than two publications are marked). The number of publications is indicated by the bottom digits and bands of different colors; the greener the color, the more publications are cited.
Figure 4. The breakdown of the institutions and nations described in the study (due to space limitations, only countries with more than two publications are marked). The number of publications is indicated by the bottom digits and bands of different colors; the greener the color, the more publications are cited.
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Figure 5. (a) Ranking of Chinese institutions in terms of the number of articles published; (b) ranking of foreign institutions in terms of the number of articles issued.
Figure 5. (a) Ranking of Chinese institutions in terms of the number of articles published; (b) ranking of foreign institutions in terms of the number of articles issued.
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Figure 6. Ecological processes in the formation of eco-industries in different agroforestries.
Figure 6. Ecological processes in the formation of eco-industries in different agroforestries.
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Table
Table 1. Division of the stages of the research.
Table 1. Division of the stages of the research.
Research StageMain CharacteristicsBackground
Beginning stage (1985–2009)Concepts and theories are discussed, and there are few practical studies on the realization of eco-product value.The publication of the “Preliminary Account on Ecological Products” [40].
Sluggish growth stage (2010–2020)Most of the retrieved content focuses on the eco-product supply capacity and the framework of eco-industries, and most of these are descriptive theoretical research and practical experience summaries. The “National Main Function Area Planning (Guo Fa (2010) No. 46)” was published in 2010.
Rapid growth stage (2021–30 June 2022)The realization paths, mechanisms, and modes of eco-product value are the focus of current research. Quantitative research and exploration of gross ecosystem product (GEP) and eco-product value accounting are beginning to appear.In 2021, the General Office of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the General Office of the State Council issued the “Opinions on Establishing and Improving the Value Realization Mechanism of Eco-product”, which proposed the establishment and improvement of the value realization mechanism of eco-products.
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Yang, Y.; Xiong, K.; Huang, H.; Xiao, J.; Yang, B.; Zhang, Y. A Commented Review of Eco-Product Value Realization and Ecological Industry and Its Enlightenment for Agroforestry Ecosystem Services in the Karst Ecological Restoration. Forests 2023, 14, 448. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030448

AMA Style

Yang Y, Xiong K, Huang H, Xiao J, Yang B, Zhang Y. A Commented Review of Eco-Product Value Realization and Ecological Industry and Its Enlightenment for Agroforestry Ecosystem Services in the Karst Ecological Restoration. Forests. 2023; 14(3):448. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030448

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yang, Ying, Kangning Xiong, Huiqiong Huang, Jie Xiao, Biliang Yang, and Yu Zhang. 2023. "A Commented Review of Eco-Product Value Realization and Ecological Industry and Its Enlightenment for Agroforestry Ecosystem Services in the Karst Ecological Restoration" Forests 14, no. 3: 448. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030448

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