1. Introduction
The photoacoustic effect is the effect of the appearance of sound in the gaseous environment of a sample that is illuminated. This effect was discovered by A. G. Bell in 1880 [
1], and explained by A. Rosencwaig almost 100 years later, in 1975 [
2,
3,
4]. If the sample is exposed to the effect of electromagnetic radiation, part of the excitation energy is absorbed and part of the absorbed energy is transformed into heat through a non-radiative de-excitation relaxation process. This process is also called the photothermal effect. The heated sample generates a disturbance of the thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment and, as a result, there is a fluctuation of pressure, density and temperature in both the sample itself and in its gaseous surrounding. These fluctuations affect the appearance of several phenomena that can be detected in different ways [
4]. Numerous non-destructive methods, known as photothermal methods, based on the recording of these phenomena, have been developed in the last half-century and are increasingly used for the characterization of various materials, electronic devices, sensors, biological tissues, etc. Pressure fluctuations are, in fact, a sound signal, the so-called photoacoustic effect, which can be detected using piezoelectric or ultrasonic sensors as well as a microphone [
5,
6,
7,
8,
9,
10,
11]. The gas microphone photoacoustic was the first developed and today is one of the most widespread experimental techniques. The implementation of this measuring technique with a cell of minimal volume, proposed in the early 1980s, ensures that acoustic losses are attenuated as much as possible in detection.
In the last decade, TiO
2 has had a wide range of applications in coatings, medicines, plastics, food, inks, cosmetics, and textiles. In the form of thin-film, TiO
2 has been used for a great variety of applications, including photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants in water as well as in air, dye-sensitized solar cells, anti-fogging, super hydrophilic, micro- and nano-mechanical sensors, etc. [
12,
13,
14,
15]. To be able to measure the physical properties of such thin films, it is usually necessary to deposit such a film on a thicker wafer.
The analysis of thin-films on substrates has always been a challenge for photoacoustic because film thicknesses ranges from a few tens to several hundred nanometres. Depending on the thickness of the substrate (usually more than tens of microns), such film thicknesses are usually at the limit of experimental detection [
16,
17,
18,
19]. This means, for example, that the differences in the amplitude of the photoacoustic signals (PAS), generated by a two-layer sample (substrate + thin-film) in the case where only the thickness of the film is changed, are extremely small [
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25,
26,
27,
28]. The analysis of such two-layer samples is also theoretically demanding.
For photoacoustic measurements to be used in the characterization of materials, it is necessary to develop a theoretical model that well describes all the processes involved in the formation of the measured signal: the process of absorption and its conversion into heat, which depends on the optical properties of the sample, the processes of heat conduction and sound propagation, which depend on the thermal and elastic properties of the sample and the thermodynamic pressure change in the gaseous environment of the sample, that is, the sound signal formed by the heated sample and recorded by a microphone. The inverse solution of the photoacoustic problem is essentially a multi-parameter fitting of the sample properties based on the developed model, which should lead to the best matching of the theoretical model with the experimentally measured signal. Since it is a multi-parameter problem, which is also a non-linear and ill-posed problem of mathematical physics due to the limited measurement range, the inverse photoacoustic problem is still the subject of intensive research, especially in the case of multi-layered structures or semiconductors where an increased number of parameters influence the recorded increase in signals (in semiconductors, photogenerated carriers affect the recorded signal. In multi-layered structures, the same processes occur in all layers, but they are controlled by properties of each layer). This makes solving the inverse photoacoustic problem extremely difficult.
Recently, machine learning has been introduced to solve the inverse photoacoustic problem. The achieved results are encouraging because they show that the application of neural networks allows a very high accuracy of the multi-parameter fitting.
The earlier developed procedure based on neural networks [
10,
11,
29,
30,
31] for processing of experimentally recorded photoacoustic signals of silicon samples by the open photoacoustic cell [
32,
33,
34,
35] shows effective recognition and removal of instrumental influence [
33,
34,
35,
36,
37,
38,
39,
40], and, consequently, provides a detailed and precise characterization of the sample [
41,
42,
43,
44,
45,
46]. On the other hand, a very thin TiO
2 layer (nano-layer) is easily deposited in a silicon substrate. Therefore, we selected a well-photoacoustically characterized silicon sample as the substrate, open photoacoustic cell photoacoustic set-up for measurement, and neural networks for solving the inverse PA photoacoustic problem and determining the thin-film’s properties.
In order to avoid additional normalizations and the calculation of effective values, we resorted to the use of the two-layer model for determining thin-film parameters where the properties of the silicon substrate are known [
21,
47,
48,
49,
50,
51,
52,
53,
54,
55,
56,
57,
58,
59,
60,
61,
62]. Neural networks were formed for the analysis of photoacoustic signals generated from the Si substrate and the TiO
2 thin-film system.
Based on previous experiences in PAS processing, we expected that they would recognize differences in signals caused by only changing film parameters (thickness, thermal diffusivity, coefficient of thermal expansion). We also expected that neural networks can determine the specified parameters of TiO2 thin-film with satisfactory accuracy and reliability. To do this, we created a relatively small database of photoacoustic signals for training and four types of networks; three of them serve as the individual predictions of only one parameter of the film, and the fourth, which serves as the prediction of all three parameters simultaneously.
In
Section 2, a brief description of the theoretical model for the PAS measured on a two-layer structure is given. In
Section 3, the network architecture used in the work is explained.
Section 4 explains in detail how the base upon which the networks were trained and tested was formed. In
Section 5, the results are given and discussed. In the end, the most important conclusions were drawn. The obtained results show that the application of neural networks in determining the thermoelastic properties of a thin-film on a supporting substrate enables the estimation of thin-film characteristics with great accuracy.
2. Experimental Procedure
The open-cell experimental photoacoustic set-up in a transmission configuration is illustrated in
Figure 1. Excitation is performed by a low-power 10 mW laser/LED (XL7090-RED, RF Communication Electronic Technology Co., Ltd., Xiamen, China) diode regulated by a frequency generator in the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz and which illuminates the sample with a red light of a wavelength of 660 nm with a distance that ensures homogeneous (uniform) surface illumination. Illumination control is performed by a sensitive photodiode (BPW34 Vishay Telefunken).
After absorption and excitation of the sample structural units, thermal energy is released through a non-radiative relaxation process, causing changes in the temperature profile of the sample. Periodic excitation generates a periodic change in the temperature distribution of the sample, which leads to periodic change in the pressure in the microphone hole that serves as a photoacoustic cell [
32]. The sample is placed directly on the photoacoustic cell. The pressure changes are very small, ~10
−6 bar, but the MC60 microphone, due to its sensitivity, detects their amplitudes and phase deviations from excitation optical signals recorded by the photodiode at each modulation frequency. The photoacoustic response is finally given in an amplitude-phase characteristic in a wide range of frequencies, from 10 Hz to 20 kHz.
The open photoacoustic cell [
32], is formed so that the inside of the microphone represents a cell. Thus, the measurement takes place with a minimum volume, which enables the recording of weak sound signals. In the measuring set-up from
Figure 1, the computer sound card (Intel 82,801 Ib/ir/ihhd) is used for making the lock-in amplifier. The sampling of the modulation frequencies is programmed in a regular logarithmic equidistant step. The photoacoustic response recorded in this way is suitable for the analysis of silicon samples up to 1 mm thick, with layers of thin-films with a thickness of up to several 100 nm, or the analysis of thin layers of multilayer structures.
One of the problems of photoacoustics is that the entire measurement frequency range is most often not used due to the influence of the accompanying measurement instrumentation in the low and high-frequency ranges. The influence of the used instruments is reflected in the fact that the amplitude of the photoacoustic signal of the sample is distorted in the low and high frequency parts, and the phase shifts its position, as is shown in
Figure 2. With the developed methodology of removing the instrumental influence [
35,
36,
37,
38,
39,
40], from the microphone to the accompanying electronics, it was shown that it is possible from the recorded photoacoustic response
S(
f) to obtain the photoacoustic signal
δptotal(
f), with a wide frequency range of 20 to 20 kHz, which can be used for further precise characterization [
36,
37,
38,
39,
40]. The instrumental influence in the photoacoustic experiment can be described by the transfer function
H(
f), which distorts the photoacoustic signal of the sample
δptotal(
f), in the following way:
The form of the function
used for filtering in the low-frequency part represents the transfer functions, which characterize the influences of the microphone and accompanying electronics:
where time constants are
τc1 = (2π
fc1)
−1 and
τc2 = (2π
fc2)
−1, the attenuation factor is
δj (
j =
c3,
c4), the peak frequency is denoted by ω
c3 and cut- by ω
c4 (ω = 2π
f) (blue arrows,
Figure 2). The function of form
is used for filtering in the high-frequency part. It is a combination of second-order transfer functions:
The correction procedure of the experimentally recorded photoacoustic response of multilayer samples produces a signal that can be further analyzed using a theoretical model and all frequency ranges of the measurement.
3. Theoretical Background
Using uniform illumination of the two-layer sample (
Figure 3) with a modulated light source, the electromagnetic radiation is absorbed and produces a periodic change in the thermal state of both the thin-film and the substrate. The layer of TiO
2 is considered dielectric because there is no effect of photogenerated charge carriers due to the larger energy gap of TiO
2 in comparison to the photon energy of the exciting beam, while the photogenerated charge carriers affect the temperature profile of the silicon substrate
T2(
z,f). Temperature changes of the non-illuminated side of the sample
T2(
l,f) and the temperature gradient between the illuminated and non-illuminated sides of the sample causes the change in the thermodynamic state in the air behind the sample. Such fluctuations create three different components of sound that result from thermal transfer from the elastic bending of the sample (composite piston theory) that the microphone detects as a total photoacoustic signal
δptotal(
f), defined as [
10,
11,
21,
30,
63,
64,
65,
66]:
where
f is the modulation frequency, and
δpTD(
f),
δpTE(
f) and
δpPE(
f) are the thermodiffusion (TD), thermoelastic (TE) and plasmaelastic (PE) photoacoustic signal components, respectively. The thermodiffusion component arises as a result of periodic heating of the non-illuminated surface of the sample, which periodically heats the air layer, causing it to periodically expand and contract. The periodic expansion and contraction of the air layer create a disturbance that is detected by the microphone. The thermoelastic component arises due to the temperature gradient between the illuminated and non-illuminated sides of the sample, which leads to the bending of the sample. Due to the modulation of the illumination, the bending is periodic, which pushes the pressure in the air that is detected by the microphone. The plasmaelastic component is caused by the photogeneration of carriers due to illumination, which leads to the additional bending of the sample, caused by a concentration gradient of charge carrier that pushes the pressure in the air which is then detected by the microphone. These components can be written as [
10,
11,
21,
30,
63,
64,
65,
66]:
where
γg is the adiabatic constant,
p0 and
T0 represent the standard pressure and temperature of the air in the microphone,
,
is the thermal diffusion length of the air,
lc is the photoacoustic cell length,
T2(
l2,
f) is the dynamic temperature variation at the substrate rear (non-illuminated) surface [
10,
11,
21,
30,
63,
64,
65,
66] (see
Appendix A),
V0 is the open photoacoustic cell volume and
Uz,c(
r,
z) is the sample displacement along the
z-axes (see
Appendix B).
The total photoacoustic sound signals
δptotal(
f), (Equation (5)) are usually represented using its amplitudes
A(
f) and phases
φ(
f). Therefore,
δptotal(
f), can be written as a complex number in the form:
where
i is the imaginary unit. The theoretically calculated photoacoustic signal
δptotal(
f) is comparable to the experimentally recorded amplitude and phase from which the instrumental influence has been removed (Equations (1)–(4)). Thus, by analytically developing the model and numerical simulations, a standard method can be used for making the base of signals required for neural networks. The application of neural networks in photoacoustics for characterization requires an adjusted value of amplitude in order to be comparable with the values of phase. A formula used for this purpose has a form:
The theoretically determined photoacoustic signal δptotal(f), is compared with the experimentally recorded amplitude and phase, and is used for material characterization.
5. Formation of the Networks Training Bases
The accuracy of the neural network largely depends on the selection of the basis for training, testing and validation. The bases have been obtained numerically using Equations (5)–(9). It is assumed that all these signals are generated by the Si substrate and TiO
2 thin-film two-layer system presented in
Figure 3. All bases consist of 41 photoacoustics and one basic. The rest of them were obtained by changing 10% of the TiO
2 thin-film parameters. The basic parameters as a system property that affects the photoacoustic signal include: geometric (thickness), thermal (thermal diffusivity, coefficient of linear expansion) and electronic, which depend on the level of doping and the purity of Si and the properties of the TiO
2 thin-film, which are shown in
Table 1, with standard temperature and pressure. Base 1 was formed for NN1 training, changing the thickness of TiO
2 film in the range of
l1 = (475–525) nm with a step of 5 nm. Base 2 was formed for NN2 training, obtained by changing the coefficient of thermal expansion of TiO
2 film in the range of
α1 = (1.045–1.55) × 10
−5 K
−1 with a step of 5 × 10
−8 K
−1. Base 3 was formed for NN3 training, changing the thermal diffusivity of TiO
2 film in the range of
D1 = (3.515–3.885) × 10
−6 m
2s
−1 with a step of 18.5 × 10
−8 m
2s
−1. Base 4 was formed for NN4 training, obtained by collecting 3 × 41 signals from all three previously mentioned bases. Since all bases are very similar, we will show only one of them, Base 4, bearing in mind that, by one photoacoustic signal, we mean two curves presented in the networks: one for amplitude and another for phase (Equation (9) and
Figure 5).
By displaying the photoacoustics of a silicon substrate thickness of
l2 = 30 μm, with different applied layers
l1 of TiO
2 thin-film, it is observed that there is no clear visual difference in the frequency dependence of the amplitudes,
A, and that the factor of precise characterization by neural networks can be a visible difference in signal phases,
φ, especially in the range from 10
3 Hz to 20 kHz, shown in
Figure 5. The difference that exists in the phases is sufficient to train neural networks NN1-4 on the amplitude-phase characteristics and to correctly determine the parameters of a thin layer that is two orders of magnitude thinner than the substrate.
7. Conclusions
The results presented in this paper indicate one very important fact—if in the measurement range, there is an influence of the thin-film on the total photoacoustic signal, neural networks easily can recognize these changes, even if they are negligibly small. Theoretical analyses of two-layer samples Si (substrate) and TiO2 (thin-film) showed relatively easy recognition of changes in the film of a thickness of ±5 nm, with the coefficient of thermal expansion of ±5 × 10–8 K–1 and coefficient of thermal diffusion of ±18.5 × 10–8 m2s–1.
In addition, it has been shown that neural networks for predicting thin-film parameters can be well-trained with a relatively small database, either to predict one or three parameters simultaneously. Furthermore, all networks give approximately the same accuracy of prediction in both theoretically generated signals and experimental data. Therefore, it can be recommended that, for the analysis of thin-films on different substrates, it is enough to form one network that simultaneously predicts several of its parameters instead of a separate network for determining each parameter.