Predicting Exposure to Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFAS) among US Infants
Abstract
:1. Introduction
What Is Known about the Effects of PFAS Exposures That Occur during Prenatal and Infant Life?
- Determine probable incidence of infant exposure within the US.
- Determine if infant serum concentrations change during the first year of life.
- If infant serum concentrations change, are they associated with average ages of major infant milestones such as transition to solid foods?
- Raise awareness among policy makers and regulatory scientists of infant serum PFAS concentrations and infant and fetal PFAS exposures in general.
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. PFOA
3.2. PFNA, PFHxS, PFDA and N-MeFOSAA
3.3. PFOS: The Case of Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
6. Study Limitations
- Data for infant exposures were not available for 2009–2010, 2011–2012, 2013–2014, 2015–2016, 2017–2018 or, as of yet, later NHANES, although we are hopeful that data, from some source, will be released in the future. The lack of infant serum data for PFAS dating later than 2007–2008 is a limitation for this study. More recent data would have allowed for analysis of changes in serum concentrations and PFAS ratios over time.
- The numbers of infants sampled who also had serum PFAS analyzed was small (93), and the numbers of infants at any of the 12 age groups (0–11 months) was smaller still. Larger numbers would have allowed for finer estimates.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Analysis of Binary Trials Related to Infant Exposure
1/2 | 0.005859 |
½ + ¼ = 3/4 | 0.197097 |
3/4/ + 1/8 = 7/8 | 0.59192 |
7/8 − 1/16 = 13/16 | 0.360472 |
13/16 + 1/32 = 27/32 | 0.468599 |
27/32 + 1/64 = 53/64 | 0.52865 |
53/64 − 1/128 = 105/128 | 0.498176 |
105/128 + 1/256 = 211/256 | 0.513305 |
211/256 − 1/512 = 421/512 | 0.505713 |
Pos. | Neg. | Formula | Mean | Median | Mode | 90% Interval |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
8 | 0 | 0.9 | 0.920 | 1 | (0.717, 0.994) | |
7 | 1 | 0.8 | 0.82 | 0.875 | (0.571, 0.959) | |
6 | 2 | 0.7 | 0.714 | 0.75 | (0.451, 0.902) | |
5 | 3 | 0.6 | 0.608 | 0.625 | (0.345, 0.832) | |
4 | 4 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | (0.252, 0.749) | |
3 | 5 | 0.4 | 0.394 | 0.375 | (0.169, 0.656) | |
2 | 6 | 0.3 | 0.287 | 0.25 | (0.098, 0.550) | |
1 | 7 | 0.2 | 0.180 | 0.125 | (0.042, 0.430) | |
0 | 8 | 0.1 | 0.080 | 0 | (0.006, 0.283) |
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PFAS Abbreviation | Chemical Name | LOD ng/mL | % > LOD | Mean ng/mL | Median ng/mL | 95th Percentile |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2-(N-ethyl-PFOSA) acetate | 2-(N-Ethyl-perfluorooctane sulfonamido) acetic acid | 0.2 | 2 | <LOD | <LOD | <LOD |
PFDA | Pefluorodecanoic acid | 0.2 | 67 | 0.41 | 0.3 | 0.9 |
PFOA | Perfluorooctanoic acid | 0.1 | 100 | 4.01 | 3.5 | 7 |
PFOS | Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid | 0.2 | 100 | 16.8 | 11 | 36.4 |
PFHxS | Perfluorohexane sulfonic acid | 0.1 | 100 | 3.07 | 1.6 | 4.2 |
N-MeFOSAA | 2-(N-Methyl-perfluorooctane sulfonamido) acetic acid | 0.2 | 62 | 0.46 | 0.2 | 0.5 |
PFBS | Perfluorobutane sulfonic acid | 0.1 | 0 | <LOD | <LOD | <LOD |
PFHPA | Perfluoroheptanoic acid | 0.4 | 8 | 0.30 | <LOD | <LOD |
PFNA | Perfluorononanoic acid | 89 | 1.47 | 1.1 | 2.38 | |
PFOSA | Perfluorooctane sulfonamide | 1 | 0.07 | <LOD | <LOD | |
PFUnDA | Perfluoroundecanoic acid | 31 | 0.28 | <LOD | 0.07 | |
PFDoDA | Perfluorododecanoic acid | 1 | 0.14 | <LOD | 0.14 |
Age in Months | <1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
Males (46) | 3 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 7 | 2 |
Females (55) | 5 | 4 | 3 | 8 | 4 | 3 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 2 | 5 |
Total number of infants (101) | 8 | 9 | 7 | 13 | 8 | 6 | 10 | 5 | 7 | 12 | 9 | 7 |
PFAS | Number Positive | Expected Percent | Conf. Interval |
---|---|---|---|
2-(N-ethyl-PFOSA) acetate | 2 | 3% | (0.2, 6) |
PFDA | 67 | 66% | (58, 74) |
PFOA | 101 | 98% | (96, 100) |
PFOS | 101 | 98% | (96, 100) |
PFhxS | 101 | 98% | (96, 100) |
N-MeFOSAA | 62 | 61% | (53, 69) |
PFBS | 0 | 1% | (0, 2.5) |
PFHPA | 8 | 9% | (4, 13) |
PFNA | 89 | 87% | (82, 93) |
PFOSA | 1 | 1.9% | (0, 4) |
PFUnDA | 31 | 31% | (24, 38) |
PFDoDA | 1 | 1.9% | (0, 4) |
N= | Age in Months | Median PFDA (ng/mL) | Median PFOA (ng/mL) | Median PFOS (ng/mL) | Median PFHxS (ng/mL) | Median N-MeFOSAA (ng/mL) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
8 | <1 | 0.17 | 2.65 | 8.1 | 1.1 | 0.35 |
9 | 1 | 0.5 | 3.7 | 33.6 | 1.7 | 0.2 |
7 | 2 | 0.7 | 3.3 | 19.5 | 1.9 | 0.3 |
13 | 3 | 0.3 | 3.9 | 11 | 1.5 | 0.3 |
8 | 4 | 0.14 | 3.8 | 11.1 | 2 | 0.2 |
6 | 5 | 0.35 | 4.8 | 15.75 | 2.15 | 0.45 |
10 | 6 | 0.25 | 3.75 | 8.95 | 1.3 | 0.25 |
5 | 7 | 0.3 | 3.4 | 17.9 | 1.9 | 0.12 |
7 | 8 | 0.25 | 3.55 | 13.1 | 1.75 | 0.21 |
12 | 9 | 0.3 | 3.9 | 11.95 | 2.15 | 0.3 |
9 | 10 | 0.2 | 4.3 | 14 | 1.4 | 0.3 |
7 | 11 | 0.2 | 3.3 | 11.8 | 1.4 | 0.12 |
Slope | −0.01762 | 0.04458 | −0.575 | 0.008566 | −0.00881 | |
intercept | 0.401923 | 3.450641 | 17.89167 | 1.640385 | 0.306795 |
Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) in µg/mL | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Months) | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
Median | 2.65 | 3.7 | 3.3 | 3.9 | 3.8 | 4.8 | 3.75 | 3.4 | 3.55 | 3.9 | 4.3 | 3.3 |
1.6 | 3.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.9 | 6.3 | 4.3 | 3.4 | 4.7 | 6 | 7.5 | 7 | |
4.9 | 3.7 | 9.5 | 9.5 | 4.6 | 5.1 | 7.2 | 2.9 | 4.8 | 8.5 | 5.3 | 6.2 | |
4.8 | 9.7 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 3.8 | 4.8 | 4.1 | 6.7 | 2.3 | 1.7 | 5.6 | 3.8 | |
3.5 | 8.9 | 6.8 | 6.8 | 2.7 | 4.8 | 4.2 | 3.3 | 2.4 | 4.2 | 4.3 | 2.5 | |
2.5 | 10.2 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 6.8 | 3 | 2.8 | 3.6 | 3.3 | 6.4 | 6 | 3.3 | |
2.2 | 2.9 | 3 | 3 | 2.3 | 3.1 | 3.4 | 3.8 | 3.4 | 2.1 | 2.7 | ||
2.2 | 2.5 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 4.8 | 2.1 | 3.7 | 2.4 | 1.8 | ||||
2.8 | 4.3 | 4.6 | 2.9 | 4.6 | 4.1 | 4 | ||||||
2.5 | 2.5 | 2.8 | 4.1 | 3.2 | ||||||||
0.8 | 3.7 | |||||||||||
2.4 | ||||||||||||
0.3 | ||||||||||||
Slope | 0.04458 | |||||||||||
Intercept | 3.450641 |
Perfluorononanoic Acid (PFNA) in ng/mL | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Months) | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
Median | 0.984 | 1.886 | 1.968 | 1.394 | 0.82 | 1.476 | 0.984 | 1.394 | 1.066 | 0.14 | 0.984 | 1.23 |
1.558 | 2.296 | 2.542 | 10.988 | 1.558 | 2.132 | 1.394 | 1.394 | 4.346 | 0.14 | 2.706 | 1.722 | |
1.066 | 4.838 | 2.05 | 1.476 | 1.722 | 1.558 | 2.378 | 2.378 | 1.394 | 0.14 | 0.984 | 2.624 | |
0.492 | 2.214 | 2.132 | 3.772 | 0.82 | 1.804 | 0.984 | 1.312 | 0.902 | 0.2 | 1.64 | 1.23 | |
1.312 | 1.886 | 1.968 | 1.394 | 0.82 | 1.394 | 0.656 | 0.82 | 1.066 | 0.14 | 1.23 | 0.738 | |
0.656 | 3.198 | 1.804 | 0.82 | 1.066 | 0.41 | 0.902 | 1.558 | 1.066 | 0.3 | 0.738 | 1.312 | |
0.984 | 1.64 | 0.656 | 1.066 | 0.656 | 0.656 | 1.066 | 0.656 | 0.3 | 1.23 | 0.574 | ||
0.984 | 0.984 | 0.738 | 0.902 | 0.984 | 0.82 | 0.14 | 0.902 | 0.902 | ||||
0.656 | 0.574 | 1.968 | 0.738 | 1.23 | 0.2 | 0.492 | ||||||
1.476 | 1.804 | 0.574 | 0.984 | 0.14 | 0.82 | |||||||
1.476 | 0.492 | 0.2 | ||||||||||
0.738 | 0.14 | |||||||||||
0.574 | 0.14 | |||||||||||
0.41 | ||||||||||||
Slope | −0.0651 | |||||||||||
Intercept | 1.551872 |
Perfluorohexane Sulfonic Acid() in ng/mL | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Months) | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
Median | 1.1 | 1.7 | 1.9 | 1.5 | 2 | 2.15 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 1.75 | 2.15 | 1.4 | 1.4 |
0.9 | 1.6 | 17.2 | 12.6 | 4.4 | 4.2 | 2.2 | 3.1 | 1.2 | 9.9 | 5.2 | 12.7 | |
6.3 | 1.7 | 2.7 | 1.2 | 3.9 | 14.1 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 2.7 | 2.4 | 9.7 | 1.7 | |
2.7 | 4.9 | 3.7 | 1.5 | 2.3 | 1.2 | 5.7 | 12.9 | 0.8 | 3.3 | 5.4 | 0.7 | |
1.3 | 3 | 1.9 | 2 | 2 | 3.1 | 5 | 1.2 | 1 | 5.3 | 1.1 | 3.6 | |
0.5 | 3.6 | 0.3 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 1 | 1.4 | 0.5 | 2.3 | 2.7 | 7.5 | 1 | |
11 | 1.9 | 1.2 | 3.8 | 1.6 | 0.7 | 3.5 | 3.6 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 1.4 | ||
0.7 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 1.1 | 4.1 | 0.4 | 4 | 0.7 | 0.6 | ||||
0.7 | 1.2 | 3.3 | 1.4 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 1.4 | ||||||
1.1 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 1.9 | 0.9 | |||||||
1.3 | 0.3 | 0.7 | ||||||||||
0.9 | 1.4 | |||||||||||
2.3 | 0.1 | |||||||||||
0.6 | ||||||||||||
Slope | 0.008566 | |||||||||||
Intercept | 1.640385 |
Perfluorodecanoic Acid (PFDA) in ng/mL | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
Median | 1.3 | 1.893 | 1.802 | 1.579 | 1.763 | 1.4 | 1.479 | 2.3 | 1.397 | 1.45 | 1.67 | 1.7 |
0.6 | 0.2 | 2.6 | 1.2 | 2.2 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 0.14 | 0.3 | 0.4 | |
0.2 | 0.14 | 1 | 0.7 | 1.3 | 0.3 | 1.1 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 2.3 | 0.3 | 0.7 | |
0.14 | 0.14 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.2 | |
0.14 | 0.14 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.2 | 0.14 | 0.3 | 0.3 | |
0.14 | 0.2 | 0.7 | 1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.14 | 0.2 | |
0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.2 | 0.14 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.2 | ||
0.2 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.14 | 0.4 | 0.14 | 0.14 | ||||
0.14 | 0.14 | 0.4 | 0.14 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.14 | ||||||
0.5 | 0.7 | 0.14 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.14 | |||||||
0.4 | 0.14 | 0.3 | ||||||||||
0.2 | 0.14 | |||||||||||
0.14 | 0.14 | |||||||||||
0.14 | ||||||||||||
Slope | 0.002479 | |||||||||||
Intercept | 1.630782 |
2-(N-methyl-PFOSA) Acetate in ng/mL | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Months) | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
Median | 0.35 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.45 | 0.25 | 0.12 | 0.21 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.12 |
0.3 | 1.7 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 1.4 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.5 | 5.8 | 0.12 | |
0.6 | 0.12 | 0.4 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.3 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.8 | |
0.3 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.12 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.12 | 2 | 0.3 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.2 | |
0.2 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | |
0.4 | 3.3 | 0.12 | 0.8 | 1.5 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.12 | 0.12 | |
0.8 | 0.12 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.12 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0.12 | 2 | 1.5 | 0.12 | ||
0.12 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.3 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.12 | ||||
0.4 | 0.12 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.12 | 0.3 | ||||||
0.12 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.3 | |||||||
0.2 | 0.12 | 0.3 | ||||||||||
0.6 | 0.3 | |||||||||||
0.4 | 0.12 | |||||||||||
0.12 | ||||||||||||
Slope | −0.0088112 | |||||||||||
Intercept | 0.30679487 |
Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid (PFOS) in ng/mL | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Months) | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
Median | 8.1 | 33.6 | 19.5 | 11 | 11.1 | 15.75 | 8.95 | 17.9 | 13.1 | 11.95 | 14 | 11.8 |
31.5 | 57.2 | 57.3 | 99.2 | 38.9 | 29.8 | 30.5 | 21.4 | 38.4 | 29 | 45.2 | 35.3 | |
15.5 | 38.6 | 32.4 | 34.5 | 17 | 28.5 | 19.4 | 18.5 | 25.7 | 20.1 | 23.2 | 19.3 | |
11.3 | 38.5 | 30.8 | 23.9 | 15.6 | 18.5 | 11.2 | 17.9 | 14.6 | 14.5 | 19.3 | 13.9 | |
8.3 | 36.4 | 19.5 | 20.4 | 13.7 | 13 | 10.7 | 9.4 | 11.6 | 14 | 15.2 | 11.8 | |
7.9 | 33.6 | 13.4 | 16 | 11.1 | 8.7 | 9.2 | 6.1 | 10.3 | 12 | 14 | 6.3 | |
6.1 | 10.9 | 6 | 15.5 | 10.9 | 2.5 | 8.7 | 7.4 | 12 | 8.3 | 5 | ||
5 | 9.5 | 1.7 | 11 | 10.8 | 8 | 11.9 | 6.7 | 4.9 | ||||
4.8 | 7.2 | 10.5 | 5.3 | 6.5 | 8.2 | 5.5 | ||||||
4 | 10.5 | 2.8 | 5.7 | 8 | 4.6 | |||||||
10.1 | 3.1 | 6.9 | ||||||||||
5.5 | 5.1 | |||||||||||
3.5 | 1.5 | |||||||||||
2.7 | ||||||||||||
Slope | −0.575 | |||||||||||
Intercept | 17.89167 |
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Share and Cite
Kirk, A.B.; Plasse, K.M.; Kirk, K.C.; Martin, C.F.; Ozsoy, G. Predicting Exposure to Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFAS) among US Infants. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 8402. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148402
Kirk AB, Plasse KM, Kirk KC, Martin CF, Ozsoy G. Predicting Exposure to Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFAS) among US Infants. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(14):8402. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148402
Chicago/Turabian StyleKirk, Andrea B., Kelsey Marie Plasse, Karli C. Kirk, Clyde F. Martin, and Gamze Ozsoy. 2022. "Predicting Exposure to Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFAS) among US Infants" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 14: 8402. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148402