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4 pages, 208 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion

by Jesús Rodrigo-Comino, José María Senciales-González and José Damián Ruiz-Sinoga

Water 2020, 12(3), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030839 - 16 Mar 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2832

Abstract

In this Special Issue, we have tried to include manuscripts about soil erosion and degradation processes and the accelerated rates due to hydrological processes and climate change. We considered that the main goal was successfully reached. The new research focused on measurements, modelling, [...] Read more.

In this Special Issue, we have tried to include manuscripts about soil erosion and degradation processes and the accelerated rates due to hydrological processes and climate change. We considered that the main goal was successfully reached. The new research focused on measurements, modelling, and experiments under field or laboratory conditions developed at different scales (pedon, hillslope, and catchment) were submitted and published. This Special Issue received investigations from different parts of the world such as Ethiopia, Morocco, China, Iran, Italy, Portugal, Greece and Spain, among others. We are happy to see that all papers presented findings characterized as unconventional, provocative, innovative and methodologically new. We hope that the readers of the journal Water can enjoy and learn about hydrology and soil erosion using the published material, and share the results with the scientific community, policymakers and stakeholders new research to continue this amazing adventure, featuring plenty of issues and challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

Research

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19 pages, 3822 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Impact of Land-Use Changes on Spatiotemporal Suspended Sediment Dynamics within a Peri-Urban Catchment

by C.S.S. Ferreira, R.P.D. Walsh, Z. Kalantari and A.J.D. Ferreira

Water 2020, 12(3), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030665 - 01 Mar 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3252

Abstract

Understanding sediment dynamics in peri-urban catchments constitutes a research challenge because of the spatiotemporal complexity and variability of land-uses involved. This study investigates differences in the concentration of total sediments (TSC) and suspended sediments (SSC) in the small peri-urban Mediterranean Ribeira dos Covões [...] Read more.

Understanding sediment dynamics in peri-urban catchments constitutes a research challenge because of the spatiotemporal complexity and variability of land-uses involved. This study investigates differences in the concentration of total sediments (TSC) and suspended sediments (SSC) in the small peri-urban Mediterranean Ribeira dos Covões catchment (40% urban area) in central Portugal. Suspended sediment responses at the catchment outlet (E) and in three upstream sub-catchments, during periods of urbanization (2011–2013) and stabilizing land-use (2017–2018) are compared for storm-event datasets encompassing similar ranges of rainstorm sizes and antecedent rainfall condition. The Quinta sub-catchment, with the lowest urban area (22%) but subject to major construction activities affecting 17% of its area, led to highest TSC and SSC during urbanization (attaining 4320 mg/L and 4184 mg/L, respectively), and a median reduction of 38% and 69%, respectively, during stabilization. Espírito Santo sub-catchment, with highest urban area (49%) and minor construction activities, displayed similar median TSC in both periods (258–240 mg/L) but highest SSC reduction (76%), highlighting the impact of the anthropogenic disturbance mainly on fine-particle sediments and a good connectivity with the stream. Porto Bordalo sub-catchment, with 39% urban area and subject to the construction of a four-line road covering 1.5% of its area, showed the lowest TSC and SSC concentrations and the lowest median reductions in both periods (31% and 64%, correspondingly), mainly because of the impact of an unplanned retention basin established with soil from the construction site. Overall, median TSC and SSC reduced 14% and 59% at E, from urbanization to stabilization. Information about sediment dynamics should guide stakeholders in establishing strategies to reduce sediment loads and mitigate the impacts on urban aquatic ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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17 pages, 4792 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Towards an Assessment of the Ephemeral Gully Erosion Potential in Greece Using Google Earth

by Christos Karydas and Panos Panagos

Water 2020, 12(2), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020603 - 23 Feb 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5060

Abstract

Gully erosion may cause considerable soil losses and produce large volumes of sediment. The aim of this study was to perform a preliminary assessment on the presence of ephemeral gullies in Greece by sampling representative cultivated fields in 100 sites randomly distributed throughout [...] Read more.

Gully erosion may cause considerable soil losses and produce large volumes of sediment. The aim of this study was to perform a preliminary assessment on the presence of ephemeral gullies in Greece by sampling representative cultivated fields in 100 sites randomly distributed throughout the country. The almost 30-ha sampling surfaces were examined with visual interpretation of multi-temporal imagery from the online Google Earth for the period 2002–2019. In parallel, rill and sheet erosion signs, land uses, and presence of terraces and other anti-erosion features, were recorded within every sample. One hundred fifty-three ephemeral gullies were identified in total, inside 22 examined agricultural surfaces. The mean length of the gullies was 55.6 m, with an average slope degree of 9.7%. Vineyards showed the largest proportion of gullies followed by olive groves and arable land, while pastures exhibited limited presence of gullies. Spatial clusters of high gully severity were observed in the north and east of the country. In 77% of the surfaces with gullies, there were no terraces, although most of these surfaces were situated in slopes higher than 8%. It was the first time to use visual interpretation with Google Earth image time-series on a country scale producing a gully erosion inventory. Soil conservation practices such as contour farming and terraces could mitigate the risk of gully erosion in agricultural areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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15 pages, 3612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Roughness Coefficients and Complex Hillslope Morphology on Runoff Variables under Laboratory Conditions

by Masoud Meshkat, Nosratollah Amanian, Ali Talebi, Mahboobeh Kiani-Harchegani and Jesús Rodrigo-Comino

Water 2019, 11(12), 2550; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122550 - 03 Dec 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3062

Abstract

The geometry of hillslopes (plan and profile) affects soil erosion under rainfall-runoff processes. This issue comprises of several factors, which must be identified and assessed if efficient control measures are to be designed. The main aim of the current research was to investigate [...] Read more.

The geometry of hillslopes (plan and profile) affects soil erosion under rainfall-runoff processes. This issue comprises of several factors, which must be identified and assessed if efficient control measures are to be designed. The main aim of the current research was to investigate the impact of surface Roughness Coefficients (RCs) and Complex Hillslopes (CHs) on runoff variables viz. time of generation, time of concentration, and peak discharge value. A total of 81 experiments were conducted with a rainfall intensity of 7 L min⁻¹ on three types of soils with different RCs (i.e., low = 0.015, medium = 0.016, and high = 0.018) and CHs (i.e., profile curvature and plan shape). An inclination of 20% was used for three replications. The results indicate a significant difference (p-value ≤ 0.001) in the above-mentioned runoff variables under different RCs and CHs. Our investigation of the combined effects of RCs and CHs on the runoff variables shows that the plan and profile impacts are consistent with a variation in RC. This can implicate that at low RC, the effect of the plan shape (i.e., convergent) on runoff variables increases but at high RC, the impact of the profile curvature overcomes the plan shapes and the profile curvature’s changes become the criteria for changing the behavior of the runoff variables. The lowest mean values of runoff generation and time of concentration were obtained in the convex-convergent and the convex-divergent at 1.15 min and 2.68 min, respectively, for the soil with an RC of 0.015. The highest mean of peak discharge was obtained in the concave-divergent CH in the soil with an RC of 0.018. We conclude that these results can be useful in order to design planned soil erosion control measures where the soil roughness and slope morphology play a key role in activating runoff generation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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22 pages, 7819 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gully Erosion Susceptibility Mapping Using Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines—Replications and Sample Size Scenarios

by Narges Javidan, Ataollah Kavian, Hamid Reza Pourghasemi, Christian Conoscenti and Zeinab Jafarian

Water 2019, 11(11), 2319; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112319 - 06 Nov 2019

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4925

Abstract

Soil erosion is a serious problem affecting numerous countries, especially, gully erosion. In the current research, GIS techniques and MARS (Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines) algorithm were considered to evaluate gully erosion susceptibility mapping among others. The study was conducted in a specific section [...] Read more.

Soil erosion is a serious problem affecting numerous countries, especially, gully erosion. In the current research, GIS techniques and MARS (Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines) algorithm were considered to evaluate gully erosion susceptibility mapping among others. The study was conducted in a specific section of the Gorganroud Watershed in Golestan Province (Northern Iran), covering 2142.64 km² which is intensely influenced by gully erosion. First, Google Earth images, field surveys, and national reports were used to provide a gully-hedcut evaluation map consisting of 307 gully-hedcut points. Eighteen gully erosion conditioning factors including significant geoenvironmental and morphometric variables were selected as predictors. To model sensitivity of gully erosion, Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) was used while the Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curve (AUC), drawing ROC curves, efficiency percent, Yuden index, and kappa were used to evaluate model efficiency. We used two different scenarios of the combination of the number of replications, and sample size, including 90%/10% and 80%/20% with 10 replications, and 70%/30% with five, 10, and 15 replications for preparing gully erosion susceptibility mapping (GESM). Each one involves a various subset of both positive (presence), and negative (absence) cases. Absences were extracted as randomly distributed individual cells. Therefore, the predictive competency of the gully erosion susceptibility model and the robustness of the procedure were evaluated through these datasets. Results did not show considerable variation in the accuracy of the model, with altering the percentage of calibration to validation samples and number of model replications. Given the accuracy, the MARS algorithm performed excellently in predictive performance. The combination of 80%/20% using all statistical measures including SST (0.88), SPF (0.83), E (0.79), Kappa (0.58), Robustness (0.01), and AUC (0.84) had the highest performance compared to the other combinations. Consequently, it was found that the performance of MARS for modelling gully erosion susceptibility is quite consistent while changes in the testing and validation specimens are executed. The intense acceptable prediction capability of the MARS model verifies the reliability of the method employed for use of this model elsewhere and gully erosion studies since they are qualified to quickly generating precise and exact GESMs (gully erosion sensitivity maps) to make decisions and management edaphic and hydrologic features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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17 pages, 2999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Soil Conservation and Eucalyptus on Hydrology and Soil Loss in the Ethiopian Highlands

by Demesew A. Mhiret, Dessalegn C. Dagnew, Tilashwork C. Alemie, Christian D. Guzman, Seifu A. Tilahun, Benjamin F. Zaitchik and Tammo S. Steenhuis

Water 2019, 11(11), 2299; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112299 - 02 Nov 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3803

Abstract

The Ethiopian highlands suffer from severe land degradation, including erosion. In response, the Ethiopian government has implemented soil and water conservation practices (SWCPs). At the same time, due to its economic value, the acreage of eucalyptus has expanded, with croplands and pastures converted [...] Read more.

The Ethiopian highlands suffer from severe land degradation, including erosion. In response, the Ethiopian government has implemented soil and water conservation practices (SWCPs). At the same time, due to its economic value, the acreage of eucalyptus has expanded, with croplands and pastures converted to eucalyptus plantations. The impact of these changes on soil loss has not been investigated experimentally. The objective of this study, therefore, is to examine the impacts of these changes on stream discharge and sediment load in a sub-humid watershed. The study covers a nine-year period that included installation of SWCPs, a three-fold increase from 1.5 ha in 2010 to 5 ha in 2018 in eucalyptus, and the upgrading of an unpaved to the paved road. Precipitation, runoff, and sediment concentration were monitored by installing weirs at the outlets of the main and four nested watersheds. A total of 867 storm events were collected in the nine years. Runoff and sediment concentration decreased by more than half in nine years. In the main watershed W5, we estimated that evapotranspiration by eucalyptus during the dry phase (November to May) increased approximately from 30 mm a⁻¹ in 2010 to 100 mm a⁻¹ in 2018. In watershed W3 it increased from 2 mm a⁻¹ to 400 mm a⁻¹, requiring more rainfall before saturation excess runoff began in the rain phase. The reduction in runoff led to a decreased sediment load from 70 Mg ha⁻¹ a⁻¹ in 2010 to 2.8 Mg ha⁻¹ a⁻¹ in 2018, though the reduction in discharge may have negative impacts on ecology and downstream water resources. SWCPs became sediment-filled and minimally effective by 2018. This indicates that these techniques are either inappropriate for this sub-humid watershed or require improved design and maintenance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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25 pages, 5857 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geomorphodynamics in Argan Woodlands, South Morocco

by Mario Kirchhoff, Lars Engelmann, Lutz Leroy Zimmermann, Manuel Seeger, Irene Marzolff, Ali Aït Hssaine and Johannes B. Ries

Water 2019, 11(10), 2193; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102193 - 22 Oct 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4075

Abstract

The endemic argan tree (Argania spinosa) populations in South Morocco are highly degraded due to their use as a biomass resource in dry years and illegal firewood extraction. The intensification and expansion of agricultural land lead to a retreat of the [...] Read more.

The endemic argan tree (Argania spinosa) populations in South Morocco are highly degraded due to their use as a biomass resource in dry years and illegal firewood extraction. The intensification and expansion of agricultural land lead to a retreat of the wooded area, while the remaining argan open woodlands are often overgrazed. Thus, canopy-covered areas decrease while areas without vegetation cover between the argan trees increase. In total, 36 rainfall simulation experiments as well as 60 infiltration measurements were conducted to investigate the potential difference between tree-covered areas and bare intertree areas. In addition, 60 soil samples were taken under the trees and in the intertree areas parallel to the contour lines. Significant differences using a t-test were found between tree and intertree areas for the studied parameters K_sat, K_h, pH, electric conductivity, percolation stability, total C-content, total N-content, K-content, Na-content, and Mg-content. Surface runoff and soil losses were not as conclusive but showed similar trends. The results showed that argan trees influence the soil underneath significantly, while the soil in intertree areas is less protected and more degraded. It is therefore reasonable to assume further degradation of the soil when intertree areas extend further due to lack of rejuvenation of argan trees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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25 pages, 4117 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effects of Tractor Passes on Hydrological and Soil Erosion Processes in Tilled and Grassed Vineyards

by Giorgio Capello, Marcella Biddoccu, Stefano Ferraris and Eugenio Cavallo

Water 2019, 11(10), 2118; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102118 - 12 Oct 2019

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 4760

Abstract

Soil erosion is affected by rainfall temporal patterns and intensity variability. In vineyards, machine traffic is implemented with particular intensity from late spring to harvest, and it is responsible for soil compaction, which likely affects soil hydraulic properties, runoff, and soil erosion. Additionally, [...] Read more.

Soil erosion is affected by rainfall temporal patterns and intensity variability. In vineyards, machine traffic is implemented with particular intensity from late spring to harvest, and it is responsible for soil compaction, which likely affects soil hydraulic properties, runoff, and soil erosion. Additionally, the hydraulic and physical properties of soil are highly influenced by vineyards’ inter-rows soil management. The effects on soil compaction and both hydrological and erosional processes of machine traffic were investigated on a sloping vineyard with different inter-row soil managements (tillage and permanent grass cover) in the Alto Monferrato area (Piedmont, NW Italy). During the investigation (November 2016–October 2018), soil water content, rainfall, runoff, and soil erosion were continuously monitored. Field-saturated hydraulic conductivity, soil penetration resistance, and bulk density were recorded periodically in portions of inter-rows affected and not affected by the machine traffic. Very different yearly precipitation characterized the observed period, leading to higher bulk density and lower infiltration rates in the wetter year, especially in the tilled vineyard, whereas soil penetration resistance was generally higher in the grassed plot and in drier conditions. In the wet year, management with grass cover considerably reduced runoff (−76%) and soil loss (−83%) compared to tillage and in the dry season. Those results highlight the need to limit the tractor traffic, in order to reduce negative effects due to soil compaction, especially in tilled inter-rows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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20 pages, 7104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Soil Erosion in the Chaohu Lake Basin through Modified Soil Erodibility Combined with Gravel Content in the RUSLE Model

by Sai Hu, Long Li, Longqian Chen, Liang Cheng, Lina Yuan, Xiaodong Huang and Ting Zhang

Water 2019, 11(9), 1806; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11091806 - 29 Aug 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5088

Abstract

It is generally acknowledged that soil erosion has become one of the greatest global threats to the human–environment system. Although the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) has been widely used for soil erosion estimation, the algorithm for calculating soil erodibility factor ( [...] Read more.

It is generally acknowledged that soil erosion has become one of the greatest global threats to the human–environment system. Although the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) has been widely used for soil erosion estimation, the algorithm for calculating soil erodibility factor (K) in this equation remains limited, particularly in the context of China, which features highly diverse soil types. In order to address the problem, a modified algorithm describing the piecewise function of gravel content and relative soil erosion was used for the first time to modify the soil erodibility factor, because it has been proven that gravel content has an important effect on soil erosion. The Chaohu Lake Basin (CLB) in East China was used as an example to assess whether our proposal can improve the accuracy of soil erodibility calculation and soil erosion estimation compared with measured data. Results show that (1) taking gravel content into account helps to improve the calculation of soil erodibility and soil erosion estimation due to its protection to topsoil; (2) the overall soil erosion in the CLB was low (1.78 Mg·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹) the majority of which was slight erosion (accounting for 85.6%) and no extremely severe erosion; and (3) inappropriate land use such as steep slope reclamation and excessive vegetation destruction are the main reasons for soil erosion of the CLB. Our study will contribute to decision-makers to develop soil and water conservation policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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17 pages, 21096 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Triggering Influence of Seasonal Agricultural Irrigation on Shallow Loess Landslides on the South Jingyang Plateau, China

by Rui-Xin Yan, Jian-Bing Peng, Qiang-Bing Huang, Li-Jie Chen, Chen-Yun Kang and Yan-Jun Shen

Water 2019, 11(7), 1474; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11071474 - 16 Jul 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2924

Abstract

Since large-scale agricultural irrigation began in the 1980s, 92 landslides have occurred around the South Jingyang Plateau during the past 40 years. The geological disaster and soil erosion have caused numerous casualties and substantial property loss. In this work, several field investigations are [...] Read more.

Since large-scale agricultural irrigation began in the 1980s, 92 landslides have occurred around the South Jingyang Plateau during the past 40 years. The geological disaster and soil erosion have caused numerous casualties and substantial property loss. In this work, several field investigations are carried out to explore the soil erosion and mechanical mechanism of these irrigated shallow loess landslides on the South Jingyang Plateau. (1) We investigated the spatial distributions, types and developmental characteristics of loess landslides. (2) We surveyed and monitored seasonal agricultural irrigation features and groundwater changes in the area since the 1980s and found that irrigation is a significant factor influencing groundwater changes, soil erosion and even causing landslides to occur. (3) Based on the field investigation, the occurrence of these irrigated shallow loess landslides was generalized, and it was found that the core process was due to the liquefaction of softening zone. We carried out a static liquefaction test and verified that the natural loess was prone to liquefaction. (4) The three main reasons for shallow loess landslides in the South Jingyang Plateau were discussed. This study provides a valuable reference for achieving an understanding of the relationship between seasonal agricultural irrigation and the occurrence of loess landslides in the area as well as similar irrigated agricultural areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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21 pages, 3663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Splash Erosion Devices for Rainfall Simulation Experiments: A Laboratory Study

by María Fernández-Raga, Julián Campo, Jesús Rodrigo-Comino and Saskia D. Keesstra

Water 2019, 11(6), 1228; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11061228 - 12 Jun 2019

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7678

Abstract

For the study of soil erosion it is important to set up the experiments well. In the experimental design one of the key factors is the choice of the measurement device. This is especially important when one part of the erosion process needs [...] Read more.

For the study of soil erosion it is important to set up the experiments well. In the experimental design one of the key factors is the choice of the measurement device. This is especially important when one part of the erosion process needs to be isolated, such as for splash erosion. Therefore, the main aim of this research is to list the general characteristics of the commonly used splash erosion devices and to discuss the performance, to be able to relate them, and make suggestions regarding their use. The devices we selected for this comparative comparison were: the splash cup, funnel, Morgan tray, Tübingen cup, tower, and the gutter. The devices were tested under the same conditions (rainfall characteristics, slope, and soil type) to assess their hydrological response under different intensities of simulated rainfall. All devices were installed on a sloping plot (10°) with sandy soil, and were exposed to 10 min. of simulated rain with intensities ranging from 60 to 172 mm/h to measure the splashed sediment, and to describe problems and differences among them. The results showed that the Tübingen cup was the best performing device to measure kinetic energy of the rain, but, because of its design, it is not possible to measure the detached splashed sediment under natural (field) conditions. On the other hand, the funnel device showed a significant relation with rain intensity because it loses little sediment to washing. In addition, the device is easy to use and cheap. Therefore, this device is highly recommended to estimated splash erosion. to the good performance measuring the actual splash erosion, because it loses little sediment by washing. The device is also cheap and easy to install and manage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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23 pages, 5650 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Pattern Analysis and Prediction of Gully Erosion Using Novel Hybrid Model of Entropy-Weight of Evidence

by Alireza Arabameri, Artemi Cerda and John P. Tiefenbacher

Water 2019, 11(6), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11061129 - 29 May 2019

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 4948

Abstract

Gully erosion is an environmental problem in arid and semi-arid areas. Gullies threaten the soil and water resources and cause off- and on-site problems. In this research, a new hybrid model combines the index-of-entropy (IoE) model with the weight-of-evidence (WoE) model. Remote sensing [...] Read more.

Gully erosion is an environmental problem in arid and semi-arid areas. Gullies threaten the soil and water resources and cause off- and on-site problems. In this research, a new hybrid model combines the index-of-entropy (IoE) model with the weight-of-evidence (WoE) model. Remote sensing and GIS techniques are used to map gully-erosion susceptibility in the watershed of the Bastam district of Semnan Province in northern Iran. The performance of the hybrid model is assessed by comparing the results with from models that use only IoE or WoE. Three hundred and three gullies were mapped in the study area and were randomly classified into two groups for training (70% or 212 gullies) and validation (30% or 91 gullies). Eighteen topographical, hydrological, geological, and environmental conditioning factors were considered in the modeling process. Prediction-rate curves (PRCs) and success-rate curves (SRCs) were used for validation. Results from the IoE model indicate that drainage density, slope, and rainfall factors are the most important factors promoting gullying in the study area. Validation results indicate that the ensemble model performed better than either the IoE or WoE models. The hybrid model predicted that 38.02 percent of the study area has either high or very high susceptible to gullying. Given the high accuracy of the novel hybrid model, this scientific methodology may be very useful for land use management decisions and for land use planning in gully-prone regions. Our research contributes to achieve Land Degradation Neutrality as will help to design remediation programs to control non-sustainable soil erosion rates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Hydrology on Soil Erosion)

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