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Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination

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A special issue of Vaccines (ISSN 2076-393X). This special issue belongs to the section "COVID-19 Vaccines and Vaccination".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 August 2024 | Viewed by 17204

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Manon Nayrac

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Guest Editor

1. Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
2. Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3C 3J7, Canada
Interests: HIV-1; intestine mucosa; T lymphocytes; SARS-CoV-2; vaccine; immune responses

Dr. Alexandra Tauzin

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Guest Editor

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The COVID-19 pandemic caused a race for the elaboration of an effective vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. Currently, four vaccines are approved in many countries (Pfizer/BioNtech BNT162b2, Moderna mRNA-1273, Janssen Ad26.COV2S, and Novavax adjuvant). They are based on different technologies, such as mRNA, recombinant replication-incompetent adenovirus, and protein subunit.

There are still limitations in the understanding of the protective components of the immune responses elicited by this vaccine. Such protection is mediated through a complex interplay between innate, humoral, and cell-mediated immunity. Several reports showed that administration of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines induced a strong humoral response after vaccination. Robust CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ memory T cell responses are induced after SARS-CoV-2 infection and play important roles in resolution of the infection, including modulating disease severity in humans and reducing viral load in non-human primates. However, the detection of these specific memory T cells has been poorly studied in the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine development and represent a gap in the understanding of the induced cellular adaptive immune responses which are likely to also play an important role for B cell maturation and development of high affinity antibody against SARS-CoV-2.

In this Special Issue, all papers, reviews, diagnostic methodologies able to shed new light on the mechanisms able to enhance SARS-CoV-2-specific strong and memory immune responses after vaccination are welcome. Additionally, all studies able to clarify the SARS-CoV-2 hybrid immunity which is the interrelationship between immune responses developed after a natural infection and vaccination are included.

Dr. Manon Nayrac
Dr. Alexandra Tauzin
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Vaccines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

SARS-CoV-2
antibodies
B cells
T cells
vaccines
immune memory responses
hybrid immunity

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 544 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Role of Immunoglobulin A in COVID-19 and Influenza Infections

by Rohit Tyagi, Srijani Basu, Atika Dhar, Suman Gupta, Sneh Lata Gupta and Rishi K. Jaiswal

Vaccines 2023, 11(11), 1647; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11111647 - 27 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1542

Abstract

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is critical in the immune response against respiratory infections like COVID-19 and influenza [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination)

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Research

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18 pages, 2660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Immunity Improves the Immune Response after the Fourth COVID-19 Vaccine Dose in Individuals with Medical Conditions Predisposing to Severe COVID-19

by Nina Ekström, Tuija M. Leino, Aapo Juutinen, Toni Lehtonen, Anu Haveri, Oona Liedes, Saimi Vara, Heini Salo, Arto A. Palmu, Hanna Nohynek, Timi Martelius and Merit Melin

Vaccines 2024, 12(3), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12030247 - 27 Feb 2024

Viewed by 978

Abstract

Data on immune responses following COVID-19 booster vaccinations and subsequent infections in the immunocompromised are limited. We studied antibody responses after the fourth dose and subsequent infections to define patient groups benefiting most from boosters. Fourth vaccine (booster) doses were, in Finland, first recommended for severely immunocompromised individuals, whom we invited to participate in our study in 2022. We assessed spike protein-specific IgG and neutralizing antibodies (NAb) against the ancestral and Omicron BA.1 strains one month after the fourth dose from 488 adult participants and compared them to the levels of 35 healthy controls after three doses. We used Bayesian generalized linear modeling to assess factors explaining antibody levels and assessed vaccine-induced and hybrid immunity six months after the last vaccine dose. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and immunosuppressive therapy (IT) were identified as factors explaining sub-optimal antibody responses. The proportion of participants with a normal antibody response and NAbs was significantly lower regarding CKD patients compared to the controls. By the 6-month sampling point, one-third of the participants became infected (documented by serology and/or molecular tests), which notably enhanced antibody levels in most immunocompromised participants. Impaired antibody responses, especially NAbs against the Omicron lineage, suggest limited protection in individuals with CKD and highlight the need for alternative pharmaceutical preventive strategies. Vaccination strategies should take into account the development of robust hybrid immunity responses also among the immunocompromised. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination)

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13 pages, 572 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolic Syndrome Is Associated with Poor Omicron Infection Prognosis While Inactivated Vaccine Improves the Outcome of Coronavirus Disease 2019 among Chinese Inhabitants: A Retrospective Observational Study from a Chinese Municipality

by Ying Liu, Dong Chen, Junfeng Li, Wei Wang, Rongfeng Han, Shanshan Cui and Suqing Bao

Vaccines 2023, 11(10), 1554; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11101554 - 30 Sep 2023

Viewed by 885

Abstract

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and metabolic syndrome (MetS) are currently highly prevalent diseases worldwide. Studies on clinical outcomes of patients with Omicron and MetS, especially after vaccination with an inactivated vaccine are limited. Herein, we explored the relationship between MetS and the outcome of Omicron infection. Study Design: This was a retrospective observational study. Methods: This study recruited 316 individuals with Omicron infection. The inpatient data from between 8 January and 7 February 2022 were obtained from designated isolation hospitals in Tianjin, China. Hierarchical and multivariable analysis was conducted on age, gender, number of complications, and vaccination status. Results: Among the 316 study participants, 35.1% were diagnosed with MetS. The results showed that MetS was strongly associated with Intensive Unit Care (ICU) admission, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) re-positivity, and severe COVID-19. The ICU admission rates of the unvaccinated individuals, those who received two-dose and full vaccination (3 doses), were 66.7%, 19.2%, and 0, respectively (p < 0.01). Two-dose and three-dose vaccinations significantly reduced PCR re-positivity. Conclusions: In summary, MetS increases the risk of ICU admission, PCR re-positivity, and severe COVID-19. MetS is a composite predictor of poor outcomes of Omicron infection. Two shots of inactivated vaccine, specifically three doses, effectively protect against Omicron even in the high-risk group. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination)

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11 pages, 1525 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long COVID and Hybrid Immunity among Children and Adolescents Post-Delta Variant Infection in Thailand

by Muttharat Jarupan, Watsamon Jantarabenjakul, Peera Jaruampornpan, Jarujan Subchartanan, Chayapa Phasomsap, Taweesak Sritammasiri, Sapphire Cartledge, Pintip Suchartlikitwong, Suvaporn Anugulruengkitt, Surinda Kawichai and Thanyawee Puthanakit

Vaccines 2023, 11(5), 884; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11050884 - 23 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2130

Abstract

This study aimed to assess long COVID, and describe immunogenicity against Omicron variants following BNT162b2 vaccination. A prospective cohort study was conducted among children (aged 5–11) and adolescents (aged 12–17) who had SARS-CoV-2 infection from July to December 2021 (Delta predominant period). Long COVID symptoms were assessed by questionnaires at 3 months after infection. Immunogenicity was evaluated by using a surrogate virus-neutralizing antibody test (sVNT) against the Omicron variant. We enrolled 97 children and 57 adolescents. At 3 months, 30 children (31%) and 34 adolescents (60%) reported at least one long COVID symptom, with respiratory symptoms prevailing (25% children and 32% adolescents). The median time from infection to vaccination was 3 months in adolescents and 7 months in children. At 1 month following vaccination, in children who received one-dose and two-dose BNT162b2 vaccines, the median (IQR) sVNT against Omicron was 86.2% inhibition (71.1–91.8) and 79.2% inhibition (61.5–88.9), respectively (p = 0.26). Among adolescents who received one-dose and two-dose BNT162b2 vaccines, the median (IQR) sVNT against Omicron was 64.4% inhibition (46.8–88.8) and 68.8% inhibition (65.0–91.2) (p = 0.64). Adolescents had a higher prevalence of long COVID than children. Immunogenicity against the Omicron variant after vaccination was high and did not vary between one or two doses of the vaccine in either children or adolescents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination)

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10 pages, 549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Dexamethasone Corticosteroid Therapy’s Effect on COVID-19 Prognosis in Cancer Patients: A Retrospective Study

by Lina Souan, Zienab Al-Khairy, Abdelkader Battah and Maher A. Sughayer

Vaccines 2023, 11(2), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11020290 - 28 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1445

Abstract

Background: Anti-inflammatory corticosteroids are used in cancer treatment and COVID-19 infections. Data on the impact of non-dexamethasone corticosteroids on COVID-19 infection severity in cancer patients are minimal. This study investigates if corticosteroid treatment affects the disease severity in adult cancer patients. Methods: A total of 116 COVID-19-infected cancer patients on hydrocortisone (H) or prednisone (P) were compared to 343 untreated patients. The study included patients who received corticosteroids before (B), after (A), or both before and after (B and A) COVID-19 infections. Ventilation support, hospitalization and mortality were investigated. Results: Our data showed that a significantly greater number of patients taking H or P required ventilation support and hospitalization and that mortality rates were higher than the control group. Patients who received H or P after COVID-19 infection had a significantly worse prognosis than the other sub-groups and the control group. Conclusion: Corticosteroids impacted cancer patients’ COVID-19 prognosis. Despite the limited sample size, H- and P-treated patients’ corticosteroids performed worse than the control, especially if treatments were received after COVID-19 infection. Hence, when a cancer patient already on H or P treatment is diagnosed with COVID-19, we recommend switching to a steroid treatment as suggested by international guidelines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination)

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23 pages, 7175 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A C57BL/6 Mouse Model of SARS-CoV-2 Infection Recapitulates Age- and Sex-Based Differences in Human COVID-19 Disease and Recovery

by Michael A. Davis, Kathleen Voss, J. Bryan Turnbull, Andrew T. Gustin, Megan Knoll, Antonio Muruato, Tien-Ying Hsiang, Kenneth H. Dinnon III, Sarah R. Leist, Katie Nickel, Ralph S. Baric, Warren Ladiges, Shreeram Akilesh, Kelly D. Smith and Michael Gale, Jr.

Vaccines 2023, 11(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11010047 - 25 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2788

Abstract

We present a comprehensive analysis of SARS-CoV-2 infection and recovery using wild type C57BL/6 mice and a mouse-adapted virus, and we demonstrate that this is an ideal model of infection and recovery that phenocopies acute human disease arising from the ancestral SARS-CoV-2. Disease severity and infection kinetics are age- and sex-dependent, as has been reported for humans, with older mice and males in particular exhibiting decreased viral clearance and increased mortality. We identified key parallels with human pathology, including intense virus positivity in bronchial epithelial cells, wide-spread alveolar involvement, recruitment of immune cells to the infected lungs, and acute bronchial epithelial cell death. Moreover, older animals experienced increased virus persistence, delayed dispersal of immune cells into lung parenchyma, and morphologic evidence of tissue damage and inflammation. Parallel analysis of SCID mice revealed that the adaptive immune response was not required for recovery from COVID disease symptoms nor early phase clearance of virus but was required for efficient clearance of virus at later stages of infection. Finally, transcriptional analyses indicated that induction and duration of key innate immune gene programs may explain differences in age-dependent disease severity. Importantly, these data demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2-mediated disease in C57BL/6 mice phenocopies human disease across ages and establishes a platform for future therapeutic and genetic screens for not just SARS-CoV-2 but also novel coronaviruses that have yet to emerge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination)

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14 pages, 1908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vaccine-Acquired SARS-CoV-2 Immunity versus Infection-Acquired Immunity: A Comparison of Three COVID-19 Vaccines

by Marie I. Samanovic, Aaron L. Oom, Amber R. Cornelius, Sophie L. Gray-Gaillard, Trishala Karmacharya, Michael Tuen, Jimmy P. Wilson, Meron F. Tasissa, Shelby Goins, Ramin Sedaghat Herati and Mark J. Mulligan

Vaccines 2022, 10(12), 2152; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10122152 - 15 Dec 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2469

Abstract

Around the world, rollout of COVID-19 vaccines has been used as a strategy to end COVID-19-related restrictions and the pandemic. Several COVID-19 vaccine platforms have successfully protected against severe SARS-CoV-2 infection and subsequent deaths. Here, we compared humoral and cellular immunity in response to either infection or vaccination. We examined SARS-CoV-2 spike-specific immune responses from Pfizer/BioNTech BNT162b2, Moderna mRNA-1273, Janssen Ad26.COV2.S, and SARS-CoV-2 infection approximately 4 months post-exposure or vaccination. We found that these three vaccines all generate relatively similar immune responses and elicit a stronger response than natural infection. However, antibody responses to recent viral variants are diminished across all groups. The similarity of immune responses from the three vaccines studied here is an important finding in maximizing global protection as vaccination campaigns continue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination)

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15 pages, 4009 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bioinformatics Designing and Molecular Modelling of a Universal mRNA Vaccine for SARS-CoV-2 Infection

by Elijah Kolawole Oladipo, Micheal Oluwafemi Adeniyi, Mercy Temiloluwa Ogunlowo, Boluwatife Ayobami Irewolede, Victoria Oluwapelumi Adekanola, Glory Samuel Oluseyi, Janet Abisola Omilola, Anietie Femi Udoh, Seun Elijah Olufemi, Daniel Adewole Adediran, Aanuoluwapo Olonade, Usman Abiodun Idowu, Olatunji M. Kolawole, Julius Kola Oloke and Helen Onyeaka

Vaccines 2022, 10(12), 2107; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10122107 - 09 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2586

Abstract

At this present stage of COVID-19 re-emergence, designing an effective candidate vaccine for different variants of SARS-CoV-2 is a study worthy of consideration. This research used bioinformatics tools to design an mRNA vaccine that captures all the circulating variants and lineages of the virus in its construct. Sequences of these viruses were retrieved across the six continents and analyzed using different tools to screen for the preferable CD8⁺ T lymphocytes (CTL), CD4⁺ T lymphocytes (HTL), and B-cell epitopes. These epitopes were used to design the vaccine. In addition, several other co-translational residues were added to the construct of an mRNA vaccine whose molecular weight is 285.29686 kDa with an estimated pI of 9.2 and has no cross affinity with the human genome with an estimated over 68% to cover the world population. It is relatively stable, with minimal deformability in its interaction with the human innate immune receptor, which includes TLR 3 and TLR 9. The overall result has proven that the designed candidate vaccine is capable of modulating cell-mediated immune responses by activating the actions of CD4⁺ T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages, and displayed an increased memory T cell and B cell activities, which may further be validated via in vivo and in vitro techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination)

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Review

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22 pages, 956 KiB

Open AccessReview

Clinical Utility of SARS-CoV-2 Serological Testing and Defining a Correlate of Protection

by Kimia Sobhani, Susan Cheng, Raquel A. Binder, Nicholas J. Mantis, James M. Crawford, Nkemakonam Okoye, Jonathan G. Braun, Sandy Joung, Minhao Wang, Gerard Lozanski, Christopher L. King, John D. Roback, Douglas A. Granger, Suresh B. Boppana and Amy B. Karger

Vaccines 2023, 11(11), 1644; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11111644 - 26 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1731

Abstract

Herein, we review established clinical use cases for SARS-CoV-2 antibody measures, which include diagnosis of recent prior infection, isolating high titer convalescent plasma, diagnosing multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), and booster dosing in the immunosuppressed and other populations. We then address whether an antibody correlate of protection (CoP) for SARS-CoV-2 has been successfully defined with the following considerations: Antibody responses in the immunocompetent, vaccine type, variants, use of binding antibody tests vs. neutralization tests, and endpoint measures. In the transition from the COVID-19 pandemic to endemic, there has been much interest in defining an antibody CoP. Due to the high mutability of respiratory viruses and our current knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 variants defining a CoP for prevention of infection is unrealistic. However, a CoP may be defined for prevention of severe disease requiring hospitalization and/or death. Most SARS-CoV-2 CoP research has focused on neutralization measurements. However, there can be significant differences in neutralization test methods, and disparate responses to new variants depending on format. Furthermore, neutralization assays are often impractical for high throughput applications (e.g., assessing humoral immune response in populations or large cohorts). Nevertheless, CoP studies using neutralization measures are reviewed to determine where there is consensus. Alternatively, binding antibody tests could be used to define a CoP. Binding antibody assays tend to be highly automatable, high throughput, and therefore practical for large population applications. Again, we review studies for consensus on binding antibody responses to vaccines, focusing on standardized results. Binding antibodies directed against the S1 receptor binding domain (S1-RBD) of the viral spike protein can provide a practical, indirect measure of neutralization. Initially, a response for S1-RBD antibodies may be selected that reflects the peak response in immunocompetent populations and may serve as a target for booster dosing in the immunocompromised. From existing studies reporting peak S1-RBD responses in standardized units, an approximate range of 1372–2744 BAU/mL for mRNA and recombinant protein vaccines was extracted that could serve as an initial CoP target. This target would need to be confirmed and potentially adjusted for updated vaccines, and almost certainly for other vaccine formats (i.e., viral vector). Alternatively, a threshold or response could be defined based on outcomes over time (i.e., prevention of severe disease). We also discuss the precedent for clinical measurement of antibodies for vaccine-preventable diseases (e.g., hepatitis B). Lastly, cellular immunity is briefly addressed for its importance in the nature and durability of protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination)

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