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27 pages, 65559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Historical Photographs of Kucha: Retracing Lost Caves and Related Thoughts

by Vignato Giuseppe

Religions 2023, 14(7), 903; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070903 - 12 Jul 2023

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Historical photographs of Kucha, mostly those taken by the Turfan German Expedition (1902–1914), can be used to recover information concerning the caves lost over the last century and features that cannot be seen any longer. The analysis of photographic material can help to [...] Read more.

Historical photographs of Kucha, mostly those taken by the Turfan German Expedition (1902–1914), can be used to recover information concerning the caves lost over the last century and features that cannot be seen any longer. The analysis of photographic material can help to individuate patterns and trigger thoughts leading to a better understanding of the sites, appreciate lost features, reveal the likely location of caves presently covered by debris, understand how caves were restored in antiquity, and suggest better ways to preserve and use rock monastery sites. Though this article focuses on Kucha, the proposed method can be used at other archaeological sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Art of Medieval China)

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14 pages, 4807 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transforming Inner Alchemical Vision into Painting: Huang Gongwang’s Clearing after Sudden Snow

by Ziyun Liu

Religions 2023, 14(7), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070861 - 30 Jun 2023

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Abstract

This paper argues that the Yuan dynasty Daoist Huang Gongwang’s 黃公望 (1269–1354) painting Clearing after Sudden Snow resonates with the principles of inner alchemy (neidan, 內丹), particularly the stage known as the resurgence of yang force. Within this painting, four prominent [...] Read more.

This paper argues that the Yuan dynasty Daoist Huang Gongwang’s 黃公望 (1269–1354) painting Clearing after Sudden Snow resonates with the principles of inner alchemy (neidan, 內丹), particularly the stage known as the resurgence of yang force. Within this painting, four prominent visual elements—the sun, the spirit room, the cliff, and the snowy mountains—come together to imbue the painting with a rich tapestry of inner alchemical connotations. They collectively portray the sequential stages of cultivation, refinement, and transformation in the context of inner alchemy. The painting not only captures the moment of transition where the snow-covered terrain is gradually transforming into a fresh and awakened state, but it also embodies a visual metaphor for the inner alchemical transformative journey. Furthermore, each individual who engages with the painting may undergo their own personal transformation through the act of contemplation and reflection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Art of Medieval China)

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19 pages, 7801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Confucian Order and Religious Doctrines: Rhetorical Characterizations of Illustrations in the Fiction “Quanxiang Pinghua” in the Yuan Dynasty

by Guoping Li

Religions 2023, 14(7), 847; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070847 - 27 Jun 2023

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Abstract

The fiction “Quanxiang Pinghua”, published by Jianyang 建陽 Yushi 虞氏 in the Yuan Dynasty, depicts public religious concepts using a set of organized illustrations of etiquette. As a popular cultural reading material of the Yuan Dynasty, the fiction’s illustrations are a [...] Read more.

The fiction “Quanxiang Pinghua”, published by Jianyang 建陽 Yushi 虞氏 in the Yuan Dynasty, depicts public religious concepts using a set of organized illustrations of etiquette. As a popular cultural reading material of the Yuan Dynasty, the fiction’s illustrations are a mixture of mainstream religious ideas, such as Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, reflecting the Jianyang people’s compromised identification of the three religions and their value of faith. The illustrations shape the religious view of “the impermanence of destiny”. With the help of the spatial narrative of the political and religious order of Confucianism and the public construction of the ritualistic landscapes of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, these images reflect the ethical enlightenment and religious beliefs of the three religions in social life. From the perspective of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, this article adopted interdisciplinary methods to analyze inherent religious ethics in the illustrations of the fiction and explore religious beliefs among the people in the Yuan Dynasty. This article suggested that, by depicting religious rituals, the illustrations in the fiction reflect the comprehensive acceptance of the benevolence and righteousness, filial piety, loyalty, and kindness of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism by the public of the Yuan Dynasty. The illustrations in the fiction manifest Confucian order and moral ethics, of which the extension is interconnected with the concepts of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and living ethics, manifesting the inner interpretation of Confucian ethics in Jianyang popular literature and art and the collective regulation of folk religious beliefs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Art of Medieval China)

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26 pages, 12179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lute, Sword, Snake, and Parasol—The Formation of the Standard Iconography of the Four Heavenly Kings in Chinese Buddhist Art

by Tianshu Zhu

Religions 2023, 14(6), 798; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060798 - 16 Jun 2023

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Abstract

The Four Heavenly Kings, Sida Tianwang 四大天王, are the guardians of the four quarters of the world in Buddhism. They are among the most frequently represented protective deities in Buddhist art across different traditions. In their standard iconographies developed in China popular during [...] Read more.

The Four Heavenly Kings, Sida Tianwang 四大天王, are the guardians of the four quarters of the world in Buddhism. They are among the most frequently represented protective deities in Buddhist art across different traditions. In their standard iconographies developed in China popular during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911), they wear full armor, and each holds exclusive attributes—lute (pipa 琵琶), sword, snake, and parasol—from the east, south, west, to the north respectively. There is no direct textual base in the Chinese cannon for such iconographies. Neither can we find prototypes in India or central Asia. Indeed, how did this iconographic group develop in China? In the past, since the standard iconographies of the Four Heavenly Kings are clear, and identification is no problem, comprehensive in-depth study on this is lacking. Actually, those attributes came from a Tantric tradition related to Tibetan Buddhism filtered through the Xi Xia (1036–1227) and Yuan (1206–1368). What revealed in the development of this iconography is the complex relationship among the Tibetan, Tanguts, Mongols, and Chinese Buddhism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Art of Medieval China)

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25 pages, 7370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tradition and Transmission: Rocana Assembly in Niche no. 5 at Feilai Feng and Huayan Teaching during the Song Period

by Qing Chang

Religions 2023, 14(5), 588; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050588 - 29 Apr 2023

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Abstract

The Huayan sutras are important historical references for the Chinese worship of the Rocana Buddha; however, these Huayan sutras provide little help in understanding the worship for the larger Rocana triad (i.e., Rocana Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas) in niche no. 5 at [...] Read more.

The Huayan sutras are important historical references for the Chinese worship of the Rocana Buddha; however, these Huayan sutras provide little help in understanding the worship for the larger Rocana triad (i.e., Rocana Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas) in niche no. 5 at the Feilai Feng complex. The Rocana triad images are primarily linked to the Buddhist texts written by Chinese monks which established the principle for teaching the Huayan ritual during the Tang period. With regard to the iconographic characteristics of the two bodhisattvas of the triad in niche no. 5, the bodhisattva Samantabhadra rides an elephant, while the bodhisattva Manjusri rides a lion. They are associated with Buddhist texts and artistic productions beyond the Huayan school and are possibly related to esoteric Buddhism. Similarly, the crowned Rocana seen in niche no. 5 is likely derived from an older tradition dating to the Tang and Five Dynasties periods. Similar descriptions can be found in esoteric Buddhist texts and images. Nevertheless, niche no. 5 is the earliest extant example of such a Rocana triad, wherein the triad is represented by a central crowned Buddha with a special hand gesture or mudra, who is flanked by two bodhisattvas riding animals. From niche no. 5, one can see the development of the Huayan Rocana triad within the tenth century. The combination of elements seen in this niche also indicates that Buddhist artists were not limited by the boundaries of different schools or teachings when they created a new form of iconography. The specific iconography of niche no. 5 can be linked to the Han-style Buddhist artistic traditions from previous periods, such as the Tang, Five Dynasties/Wuyue Kingdom. Ultimately, the contemporary Northern Song capital, Kaifeng, was likely the most direct influence. The Rocana Buddhist triad at niche no. 5 is reflected in the iconography of the same triad installed at the Huiyin monastery at a later time during the Northern Song Dynasty. In turn, the similarities between the images in niche no. 5 and those from other regions, such as Sichuan, Yunnan, Korea and Japan, reveal the connection between the Huiyin monastery and these other sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Art of Medieval China)

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23 pages, 11752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polytheism Tendency in the Trend of Integration of the Three Major Religions: Worship of Silkworm Deity Art of Medieval China

by Fei Ju

Religions 2022, 13(11), 1047; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13111047 - 02 Nov 2022

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Abstract

A silkworm deity was a Trade God worshipped by the court and the folk, and was also a spiritual symbol of sericulturists in medieval China. Images of the silkworm deity in ancient Chinese art are important relics of material heritage for studying culture [...] Read more.

A silkworm deity was a Trade God worshipped by the court and the folk, and was also a spiritual symbol of sericulturists in medieval China. Images of the silkworm deity in ancient Chinese art are important relics of material heritage for studying culture and ritual activities in medieval China. This paper investigates images of silkworm worship from the Han Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty to distinguish between their use by the court and the folk. This paper explores the gradual personification of the silkworm deity in medieval China, as well as the differences in the identity of the silkworm deity connected to the varying status of worshipers and the functions of the silkworm deity. It is proposed that silkworm deity worship is evidence of a tendency toward polytheism, and has a variety of identities and unified functions under the trend of continuous integration of three major religions and folk religion. The worship of the silkworm deity has the characteristics of hybridity, integrated and patriarchal, as well as the social edification and practical functionality caused by the different mentality of official and folk silkworm deity worship in medieval China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Art of Medieval China)

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23 pages, 9614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Tripods in Daoist Alchemy: Uncovering a Material Source of Immortality

by Zhen Fan

Religions 2022, 13(9), 867; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13090867 - 16 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3078

Abstract

The tripod (ding 鼎) and the nine tripods (jiuding 九鼎) are significant in ancient China, appearing often in Daoist alchemy. However, they have been largely ignored by the scholarship on Daoism. Early Daoist alchemy saw the tripod and the nine tripods [...] Read more.

The tripod (ding 鼎) and the nine tripods (jiuding 九鼎) are significant in ancient China, appearing often in Daoist alchemy. However, they have been largely ignored by the scholarship on Daoism. Early Daoist alchemy saw the tripod and the nine tripods as critical elements in the production of immortality, but the outer alchemy (waidan 外丹) gave up refining the outer elixir by tripod due to technical reasons. The tripod was merely mentioned in the elaboration of outer alchemy. Later, in the Southern Song dynasty, inner alchemy (neidan 內丹) rebuilt the significance of the tripod and the nine tripods in inner refining, inventing new theories, such as the body-tripod metaphor, the nine orbits, and the lunar phases. This paper outlines the history of the (nine) tripods as a concept and implement in Daoist alchemy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Art of Medieval China)

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16 pages, 3730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Connection between Buddhist Temples, the Landscape, and Monarchical Power: A Comparison between Tuoba Hong (471–499) from the Northern Wei Dynasty and Li Shimin (626–649) from the Tang Dynasty

by Yi Zhao, Chaoran Xu and Tingfeng Liu

Religions 2022, 13(9), 833; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13090833 - 07 Sep 2022

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Abstract

Since the Western Jin period, Buddhism has confronted bureaucratic power within the architectural landscape. In this study, historical records and archaeological reports of two Buddhist temples—the Siyuan Temple 思遠佛寺 built during the reign of Tuoba Hong 拓跋宏 and Emperor Xiaowen 孝文帝 of the [...] Read more.

Since the Western Jin period, Buddhism has confronted bureaucratic power within the architectural landscape. In this study, historical records and archaeological reports of two Buddhist temples—the Siyuan Temple 思遠佛寺 built during the reign of Tuoba Hong 拓跋宏 and Emperor Xiaowen 孝文帝 of the Northern Wei dynasty, and the Zhaoren Temple 昭仁寺, built during the reign of Li Shimin 李世民 and Emperor Taizong 唐太宗 of the Tang dynasty—were examined. A comparison was made of the two temples’ geographic locations in relation to cities while considering period-specific phenomena. This study also considers mountains, water, and topographical features. The geographic information reflects differences in the ideas of the ruling class and monarchs of the two historical periods. The findings are that both Buddhist temples were close to the capital and both emperors demonstrated the supremacy of their power by building them. Therefore, the religious landscape owes its formation, development, and underlying significance to emperors and social groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Art of Medieval China)

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