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13 pages, 1055 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Practice of Rou 柔 from Wang Bi’s Perspective

by Limei Jiang

Religions 2023, 14(12), 1470; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14121470 - 27 Nov 2023

Viewed by 677

This paper holds that Laozi’s philosophy on softness is a topic that remains to be fully discussed. By distinguishing between the meanings of softness and weakness, this paper discusses how Wang Bi semantically integrated the two, presenting them as methods to attain the [...] Read more.

This paper holds that Laozi’s philosophy on softness is a topic that remains to be fully discussed. By distinguishing between the meanings of softness and weakness, this paper discusses how Wang Bi semantically integrated the two, presenting them as methods to attain the Dao. In this paper, the differences in Wang Bi’s usage of “柔弱” (softness and weakness) and “柔顺” (softness and compliance) in his annotations on the Daodejing and Yijing are noted, emphasizing the logical support and rational explanation that Wang Bi provided for the external behaviors of gentleness described in the hexagram lines. Wang Bi reconciled the contradictions between Confucian and Daoist views on valuing gentleness and balancing Yin–Yang. In the text, he elaborates on gentleness as both a personal moral requirement and a method of social governance, addressing the real-world issues of his time and thus greatly enhancing the practicality of Laozi’s philosophy of valuing softness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

13 pages, 873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Laozi to Lao-Zhuang and Huang-Lao Daoism: The Two Paths of Oneness in the Development of Early Daoist Thought

by Xiaojiao Cui

Religions 2023, 14(11), 1390; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14111390 - 07 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1184

Abstract

This paper proposes examining the central notion of Oneness (一 yi) in Daoist thought by offering an analysis of its uses in the early writings of the Daoist tradition, beginning with the Laozi 老子 and the Zhuangzi 莊子 before moving on to [...] Read more.

This paper proposes examining the central notion of Oneness (一 yi) in Daoist thought by offering an analysis of its uses in the early writings of the Daoist tradition, beginning with the Laozi 老子 and the Zhuangzi 莊子 before moving on to Huang-Lao 黃老 texts. While Oneness in the Laozi primarily appears as another “name” for Dao, it was used in discussions of cosmogony and cosmology, political governance, and personal cultivation. These multiple aspects of Oneness in the Laozi were later developed along two different paths in Daoist thought. The first, exhibited in the Zhuangzi, the Baopuzi 抱樸子, and other similar documents, treated Oneness as the ultimate source of all things and extended its meaning in the context of personal cultivation. In resonance with this path, their central teachings concerned “maintaining Oneness” (守一 shou yi). In the second path, expressed in the Huang-Lao tradition’s understanding and interpretation of the Laozi, Oneness acquired a certain concreteness and was singled out as the criterion and standard for social order, while the notion of Dao gradually devolved into abstraction. Huang-Lao writers hence emphasized Oneness in the sense of unification, uniformity, a singular decree, or law, which opened a theoretical gap between Oneness and Dao, and their central teachings concerned “utilizing Oneness” (用一 yong yi) and “holding Oneness” (執一 zhi yi). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

18 pages, 899 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Taiyi: The Axis of Philosophy of the Laozi

by Yongfeng Huang and Zhikun Li

Religions 2023, 14(11), 1372; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14111372 - 31 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1181

Abstract

Taiyi 太一, the void and dark central region of the celestial sphere, carries symbolic implications that resonate with the essence of ultimate reality in the philosophical framework of the Laozi 老子. It assumes a metaphorical representation of the ultimate reality and its movement [...] Read more.

Taiyi 太一, the void and dark central region of the celestial sphere, carries symbolic implications that resonate with the essence of ultimate reality in the philosophical framework of the Laozi 老子. It assumes a metaphorical representation of the ultimate reality and its movement pattern, serving as the axis from which the fundamental concepts and principal branches of this philosophy unfurl. The concept of Taiyi exerts a profound and far-reaching impact on the philosophical discourse of the Laozi. It assumes the mantle of a signifier for the ultimate reality within the philosophical framework of the Laozi, while its dynamic motion patterns imbue the cosmological principles of this philosophy. On a pragmatic level, Taiyi unveils profound and nuanced insights into human nature and the epistemology expounded by the Laozi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

15 pages, 891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Philosophy of Moderation: The “Center” as an Interpretive Key to the Lao–Zhuang Texts

by Rory O’Neill and Riccardo Peruzzi

Religions 2023, 14(10), 1320; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14101320 - 20 Oct 2023

Viewed by 927

Abstract

The “center” is a key concept in early Chinese philosophy. While readings of the Laozi 老子 and Zhuangzi 莊子 often rely on concepts of “nature” and the “natural”, this article proposes the “center” as an interpretive key that informs discussion of contemporary issues [...] Read more.

The “center” is a key concept in early Chinese philosophy. While readings of the Laozi 老子 and Zhuangzi 莊子 often rely on concepts of “nature” and the “natural”, this article proposes the “center” as an interpretive key that informs discussion of contemporary issues while remaining faithful to the core concerns of the texts. While both texts use the “center” to promote a philosophy of moderation, in the Laozi, “holding to the center” (shou zhong 守中) refers to a focus on one’s inner center to counteract the dangers of the external, whereas the Zhuangzi speaks of a centeredness between inner cultivation and outward socialization. In the Laozi, we examine images of one-, two- and three-dimensional centers as well as the bodily practice of focusing on the inner stomach rather than the outward-looking eyes. Our discussion of the Zhuangzi focuses on occupying the “center” (zhongyang 中央) between extreme inward and outward modes of being. The result is a philosophy of moderation that fosters a sense of humility, balance, and impartiality, cautioning against a drive for overreaching solutions for all humanity, and tempering attempts to conform to extreme “naturalness” or reject all “artificiality”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

18 pages, 898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Different Routes the Same Destination: “Oneness with Dao through Skill” in the Zhuangzi

by Fei Gai

Religions 2023, 14(10), 1270; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14101270 - 08 Oct 2023

Viewed by 842

Abstract

In “The Great and Venerable Teacher”, the Woman Crookback points out the path from words and language to behavior and practice, to enlightenment, and lastly, to obtaining the Dao, which is congruent with the “oneness with Dao through skill” route implicitly described in [...] Read more.

In “The Great and Venerable Teacher”, the Woman Crookback points out the path from words and language to behavior and practice, to enlightenment, and lastly, to obtaining the Dao, which is congruent with the “oneness with Dao through skill” route implicitly described in the Zhuangzi. The essential difference between “Zhuangzi’s skill”, which is capable of reaching the realm of Dao, and ordinary skills and arts is not found in the kind or level of abilities, nor in the tools required to do the skills, but rather in the self-knowledge of the “skill”. In order to clarify the natural patterns of things and one’s spiritual nature, as well as to reach the realm of “losing and again losing” and to remove all influences on the mind, one can use “Zhuangzi’s skill”, which can help the practitioner focus on one thing. Ultimately, the spiritual nature and the natural patterns will be in harmony with one another, matching up “Heaven” with “Heaven”, and becoming one with Dao. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

15 pages, 877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mobility and Intuition: What Does Pre-Qin Daoist Philosophy Reveal about Constructive Postmodernism?

by Weixi Li

Religions 2023, 14(9), 1132; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091132 - 04 Sep 2023

Viewed by 756

Abstract

Constructive postmodernism is based on the monism of mind and matter, and proposes an organic philosophy which highlights the process and pan-empiricism. Chinese pre-Qin Daoist philosophy on the materiality, dynamism, and information of the Way (Dao) and human intuitive knowledge can be used [...] Read more.

Constructive postmodernism is based on the monism of mind and matter, and proposes an organic philosophy which highlights the process and pan-empiricism. Chinese pre-Qin Daoist philosophy on the materiality, dynamism, and information of the Way (Dao) and human intuitive knowledge can be used as the basis for the above-mentioned statements of organic philosophy and pan-empiricism and further answer their unaddressed questions, and can manifest that the pre-Qin Daoist philosophy also has the potential to provide intellectual resources for the discussion of the philosophical mind–matter relationship. This may contribute to the further development of human science and technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

14 pages, 863 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Possibility of Asking about Dao: On the Philosophical Significance of Dialogue in the Zhuangzi

by Yiming Wang

Religions 2023, 14(9), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091118 - 30 Aug 2023

Viewed by 712

Abstract

In contrast to the aphoristic style of the Daodejing, Zhuangzi is known for its abundant use of dialogues. These dialogues, especially those found in chapters 21 and 22, are consciously organized around the theme of “asking about Dao”. They bring together the [...] Read more.

In contrast to the aphoristic style of the Daodejing, Zhuangzi is known for its abundant use of dialogues. These dialogues, especially those found in chapters 21 and 22, are consciously organized around the theme of “asking about Dao”. They bring together the diverse propositions about the Dao that are found independently throughout the Daodejing. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the fact that Zhuangzi consciously orders these propositions in terms of the different levels of knowledge of Dao. Within this theoretical framework, Zhuangzi further ranks the questions and answers regarding these propositions. Certain dialogues are partly dismissed because both participants demonstrate a flawed and shallow understanding of the Dao, while other questions and answers are acknowledged and appreciated for their correct and profound understanding of it. There is a strict corresponding relationship between levels of knowledge of Dao and different attitudes toward dialogues in it. Therefore, the examination of the dialogues about the Dao reveals that Zhuangzi places explicit emphasis on the knowledge of the Dao compared to the Daodejing, which also sheds light on Zhuangzi’s distinctive awareness of the problems surrounding this key concept. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

20 pages, 1619 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Study on Features Exploring of the Concept of Wen and Zhi in Lao-Zhuang’s Philosophy

by Shangkun Ji and Yongfeng Huang

Religions 2023, 14(8), 1013; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14081013 - 08 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1242

Abstract

For a long time, scholars have been applying the view of Confucius on Wen (文) and Zhi (質), centering on liyi (rites and rituals 禮儀) and renyi (benevolence and righteousness 仁義), to the Daoist concepts of them. This inevitably leads to many misunderstandings [...] Read more.

For a long time, scholars have been applying the view of Confucius on Wen (文) and Zhi (質), centering on liyi (rites and rituals 禮儀) and renyi (benevolence and righteousness 仁義), to the Daoist concepts of them. This inevitably leads to many misunderstandings and overlooking the unique characteristics of the Daoist view. In the philosophy of Laozi and Zhuangzi, Zhi represents the natural state of human nature that is simple and desireless, while Wen refers to the corresponding expressions of speech and behavior generated based on Zhi. Under the Daoist Dao (the way 道)–Wu (object 物) model, the relationship between Wen and Zhi in Laozi and Zhuangzi is closely related to human nature and emotions, presenting Ti (source 體)–Yong (function 用) as the unity with nature as Ti and emotions as Yong. Secondly, Laozi and Zhuangzi’s view on Wen and Zhi is closely related to the thoughts of self-cultivation and governing the country, with the latter as the foundation for the former. Their view of Wen and Zhi shows the relationship of Ben (root 本)-Mo (branch 末). The probing into the Laozi and Zhuangzi’s concept of Wen and Zhi helps to understand the unique characteristics of the Daoist view, thereby further excavating the theoretical value and practical significance of the relationship between Wen and Zhi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

10 pages, 792 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Methods of Philosophic Critique Native to the Laozi

by Daniel Sarafinas

Religions 2023, 14(7), 840; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070840 - 26 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 870

Abstract

Lao-Zhuang thought and the Laozi in particular is frequently interpreted as providing a critique of the dominant social values of its time. In English language literature, this often entails utilizing thinkers from the Western tradition of philosophic critique from Kant onwards, thereby obscuring [...] Read more.

Lao-Zhuang thought and the Laozi in particular is frequently interpreted as providing a critique of the dominant social values of its time. In English language literature, this often entails utilizing thinkers from the Western tradition of philosophic critique from Kant onwards, thereby obscuring the critical methods unique to the text itself. Chinese language literature, on the other hand, rarely uses the semantics of philosophic critique which thereby prevents the text from contributing its own unique voice to the discourse of critique. This paper attempts to put the Laozi into discourse with the wider tradition of philosophic critique, broadening the tradition with a unique “Chinese voice”, but allowing it to speak in its own terms according to the text itself, the commentarial tradition, and modern scholarship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

20 pages, 817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laozi’s Conception of Justice in the Daodejing: Distinguishing the Constant Dao from the Dao of Heaven

by Thomas Michael

Religions 2023, 14(6), 771; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060771 - 12 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1243

Abstract

Throughout the pages of the Daodejing, Laozi reveals a complex conception of justice. Understanding it demands that we strictly distinguish the four central notions around which it is structured: the Constant Dao, the Dao of Humans, the Dao of Heaven, and Heaven [...] Read more.

Throughout the pages of the Daodejing, Laozi reveals a complex conception of justice. Understanding it demands that we strictly distinguish the four central notions around which it is structured: the Constant Dao, the Dao of Humans, the Dao of Heaven, and Heaven and Earth. After situating Laozi’s conception of justice in the opening section, this study then examines the ancient ritual background from which he injected innovative content into these four notions before moving on to a textual analysis of their deployment throughout the Daodejing. In contrast to other modern Western analyses of the text’s philosophy that focus on the naturalism of the Constant Dao while disregarding the theism of the Dao of Heaven, this study attempts to re-envision the text’s complementarity of the religious and the philosophical. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

15 pages, 869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcendental Time and Empirical Time: Two Types of Time and Their Internal Connection in the Laozi

by Zhongjiang Wang and Qiuhong Li

Religions 2023, 14(5), 656; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050656 - 15 May 2023

Viewed by 1059

Abstract

The concept of time in Laozi’s philosophy is more complicated than it appears. Its complexity stems from the fact that there are two distinct concepts of time: the temporality of empirical things, which is constructed as a finitely continuous temporal succession that is [...] Read more.

The concept of time in Laozi’s philosophy is more complicated than it appears. Its complexity stems from the fact that there are two distinct concepts of time: the temporality of empirical things, which is constructed as a finitely continuous temporal succession that is perceptible, and the temporality of the shapeless dao 道, which is conceived of as a transcendental and infinitely continuous temporal succession that is imperceptible. Referring to the excavated Laozi texts, we find that most of the heng 恆 characters were replaced by the character chang 常 in the transmitted versions of the text. In addition, inspired by the excavated text Hengxian 恆先, the concept of heng in Spring and Autumn period philosophy has become an important subject of study. These two factors collectively lay a thought-provoking foundation for understanding Laozi’s ideas about the continuous, large-scale temporal eternality of dao. This article argues that both the daoheng 道恆 and hengdao 恆道 are used in the Laozi to describe the temporality of dao but that the latter has long been forgotten and overlooked by modern scholars. In the compound word hengdao, the character heng is a noun that acts as an attribute; whereas in the compound word hengdao, the character heng is a noun that acts as the predicate. This article argues that Laozi introduced the theory of “dao is eternal” (dao yongheng 道永恆) as evidenced by the use of heng and several time concepts such as “it seems to have even preceded the first ancestors” (xiangdi zhi xian 象帝之先), “the spirit of the valley never dies” (gushen busi谷神不死), “he who lives out his days has had a long life” (si er buwang 死而不亡), “the way … by which one lives to see many days” (changsheng jiushi 長生久視). The temporality of material things originates from the temporality of dao. Moreover, things can possess and expand their own time if they act in accordance with the universal law of dao. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

17 pages, 900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Religiousness of Cultivation in the Zhuangzi: “The Unity of Self” of Zuowang 坐忘

by Shanshan Ma

Religions 2023, 14(5), 612; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050612 - 06 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1693

Abstract

From the perspective of mysticism, the interpretation of zuowang 坐忘 as the breath-meditation technique with a transcendental goal establishes the religious basis of Zhuangzi’s cultivation. In contrast, most Chinese scholars argue instead that zuowang is primarily the mental state independent of meditative techniques, [...] Read more.

From the perspective of mysticism, the interpretation of zuowang 坐忘 as the breath-meditation technique with a transcendental goal establishes the religious basis of Zhuangzi’s cultivation. In contrast, most Chinese scholars argue instead that zuowang is primarily the mental state independent of meditative techniques, and that the techniques are devoid of philosophical significance. The pivot of the two seemingly irreconcilable views is the holistic concept of qi 氣. Combining the two interpretations can lead to a consummate understanding. There is an innate connection between the physical and nonphysical qi, and the latter can be considered as the root and basis. Deep exploration of the mysticism paradigm represented by Harold Roth reveals that the interpretation of meditative techniques is a necessary step in gaining mystical experiences not contradictory to the one that construes it as mental cultivation. The mind–body transformation shows that the pursuit of authenticity and wholeness of humanity can broaden one’s concern with fellow human beings and other realms of existence, as the same process is followed in the perpetual growth and change of the universe. This allows us to experience resonance with the universe toward the goal of “the unity of self” so to speak. The religiousness of Zhuangzi’s cultivation is, thus, substantiated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

11 pages, 830 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Yizhi Weishi: The Zhuangzi’s View of Time for the Genuine Human and Its Modern Value

by Shandong Zhou

Religions 2023, 14(4), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040502 - 05 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1155

Abstract

In modern society, Time is developing into a dominant force, with time anxiety, time poverty, and time tyranny becoming increasingly prevalent. The Genuine Human’s “yizhi weishi” (以知为时, to take Understanding as composed of time), the concept of time found in the [...] Read more.

In modern society, Time is developing into a dominant force, with time anxiety, time poverty, and time tyranny becoming increasingly prevalent. The Genuine Human’s “yizhi weishi” (以知为时, to take Understanding as composed of time), the concept of time found in the Zhuangzi, emphasizes the overall perception and active construction of characteristics of time, and offers the possibility of enhancing a proactive understanding of time. In the Zhuangzi’s perspective, time is not only continuous, infinite, and one-dimensionally linear, but also intermittent, finite, and cyclical. “Yizhi weishi” is intended to grasp these characteristics of time, to actively use and participate in the construction of time, which is the method of the “Genuine Human” for mastering time. For modern society, the “yizhi weishi” perspective of time enlightens people to harmonize their socially ordered time with the rhythms of nature, to reconstruct the vast connection between human beings and cosmic space with a contextualized concept of time, and to manage time from the perspective of “internal dynamics” rather than “external limitations”. Such a perspective has important inspirational value for enhancing the quality of human life and improving the order of human production and existence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

15 pages, 946 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reexamining the Different Paths to the Dao of the Daodejing

by Jing Tan and Xiangfei Bao

Religions 2022, 13(12), 1216; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13121216 - 15 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3654

Abstract

The Daodejing has inconsistent editions and versions. There are controversial issues that lie in the theme, the intention, the significance, and the semantic meaning of the Daodejing. This article takes “Dao ke dao fei chang Dao” as an anchor to [...] Read more.

The Daodejing has inconsistent editions and versions. There are controversial issues that lie in the theme, the intention, the significance, and the semantic meaning of the Daodejing. This article takes “Dao ke dao fei chang Dao” as an anchor to reexamine the different paths to the Dao of the Daodejing. We regard all of the editions and versions as an enrichment of the Daodejing. Drawing on the Chinese exegetics, we obtain two basic meanings of the verb dao (“to speak” and “to follow”), and two basic meanings of the adjective chang (“eternal” and “common”). Based on a philosophical analysis and review of the sinological interpretations, we discriminate three ways of speaking (conceptual way, metaphorical way, and transcendental way), two modes of following (to imitate the Dao and to merge identically with the Dao), and three types of eternal (immutable eternal, constantly changing as eternal, and eternal in the core). By examining different paths to the Dao, we conclude that Laozi’s Dao cannot be expressed conceptually or metaphorically. We must comprehend the Dao in a transcendental way. The Dao constantly changes with a stable core or law but differs from physical law, dialectical logic, and logos in the Western context. People can follow the Dao and become identical to it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

15 pages, 282 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Daoist Reflections on the See-Saw of Contingency and Autonomy: The Laozi and Zhuangzi in Dialogue with Sandel, Rosa, Rorty, Gray

by Paul Joseph D’Ambrosio

Religions 2022, 13(10), 972; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13100972 - 17 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1291

Abstract

Nearly all philosophical inquiry is rooted in contingency. From ontology and theories of God to politics and ethics, dealing with, explaining, planning for, or even following contingency is a consistent theme. In the background of their recent works, Michael Sandel, Hartmut Rosa, John [...] Read more.

Nearly all philosophical inquiry is rooted in contingency. From ontology and theories of God to politics and ethics, dealing with, explaining, planning for, or even following contingency is a consistent theme. In the background of their recent works, Michael Sandel, Hartmut Rosa, John Gray, and Richard Rorty all see contingency and autonomy in a see-saw relationship: more of one correspondingly results in less of the other. Daoist philosophical reflections provide a different take on contingency. We can still have an experience of “self” and of making choices without positing any notion of autonomy outside of contingency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Pathways into Early Daoist Philosophy)

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