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26 pages, 1628 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Differences between Han Rhapsodies and Han Paintings in Their Portrayal of the Queen Mother of the West and Their Religious Significance

by Xiaoyang Wang and Shixiao Wang

Religions 2022, 13(4), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13040327 - 06 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2264

Abstract

This paper argues that there exist two Queen Mothers of the West (Xiwangmu) in the Han era (206 BC–AD 220): one worshipped as a goddess of longevity and immortality by people from the upper class; the other worshipped by the ordinary people as [...] Read more.

This paper argues that there exist two Queen Mothers of the West (Xiwangmu) in the Han era (206 BC–AD 220): one worshipped as a goddess of longevity and immortality by people from the upper class; the other worshipped by the ordinary people as a seemingly omnipotent deity with divine power over both the immortal world and the mortal world. This argument is based on a thorough comparative investigation of the surviving corpus of Han rhapsodies (fu) and Han paintings, the two major genres of art that give form to her cult in the Han period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

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47 pages, 17732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zhuiniu Water Buffalo Ritual of the Miao: Cultural Narrative Performed

by Thomas Riccio

Religions 2022, 13(4), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13040303 - 31 Mar 2022

Viewed by 2886

Abstract

The zhuiniu 椎牛 ritual is one of the most elaborate of the Miao people of western Hunan, China. Zhuiniu means “kill the buffalo with a spear” and traces its origins to the worship of spirits and natural elements. Sponsored by a family to [...] Read more.

The zhuiniu 椎牛 ritual is one of the most elaborate of the Miao people of western Hunan, China. Zhuiniu means “kill the buffalo with a spear” and traces its origins to the worship of spirits and natural elements. Sponsored by a family to repay the spirits, the ritual was a village-wide event that culminated with the sacrifice of a water buffalo and a community celebration. The zhuiniu, estimated to be several thousand years old, is rapidly vanishing from cultural memory. In July and August of 2018, six master badai-spiritual specialists of the Miao—were gathered in La Yi 腊乙, a village in the Wuling Mountain by the cultural bureau of the Xiangxi Tujia-Miao Autonomous Prefecture of Hunan Province to reenact and document the ritual. Using performance ethnography as research methodology, the author employs on-site observations, interviews, field notes, audio, and video to document the reenactment and describe its significance in the words of its practitioners. This essay argues that the zhuiniu has no definitive expression but is an adaptative and interpretative cultural narrative adjusting to circumstances and practice. The ritual exists today as it had historically, in many and varied expressions and interpretations shaped by local need, geography, and subject to the vagaries to orally transmitted forms of practice. Although fragmentary in performance expression and interpretation, the zhuiniu ritual narrative serves as a mythologically-based script that organizes a series of dramatic events that invites community awareness and interaction. In so doing, this sacred ritual has sustained its importance in conveying, embodying, and encoding a spiritual, social, and cultural record of Miao cosmology, culture, and history. Performatively conveyed—using song, music, costumes, dance and movement, props, and set pieces—the zhuiniu has been efficiently and sensorially reimagined in order to reiterate and reaffirm cultural knowledge. With rural modernization, dissolution of cultural context and need, and the aging of its practitioners, the traditional role of the zhuiniu is now in question. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

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12 pages, 809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Pei Yue and His Poems Written to Monks

by Ludi Wang and Yongfeng Huang

Religions 2022, 13(3), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13030194 - 24 Feb 2022

Viewed by 1704

Abstract

Pei Yue 裴説 is a poet who flourished in the Late Tang (618–907) and Five Dynasties (907–960). The historical literature contains relatively limited information about his life, and his poems handed down to this day are also rare. To date, he has not [...] Read more.

Pei Yue 裴説 is a poet who flourished in the Late Tang (618–907) and Five Dynasties (907–960). The historical literature contains relatively limited information about his life, and his poems handed down to this day are also rare. To date, he has not been a major focus in the academic literature. Eight complete poems and two remnants from Pei Yue’s existing poems were addressed to monks, including the renowned monk and calligrapher Huaisu 懷素 (737–?), the two outstanding monks and poets Guanxiu 貫休 (832–912) and Shangyan 尚顏 (fl. 881), as well as the lesser known Chubin 處賓, Chumo 處默, Zhiqian 知乾, a nameless monk always in his monastery (bu chuyuan seng 不出院僧), and Su Zhan 蘇瞻, who was an advanced scholar (jinshi 進士) and planned to become a monk. It can be seen from these poems that Pei Yue often associated with monks: he discussed Buddhist concepts and artistic skills with them, and he both praised and mourned them. Moreover, Pei Yue was strongly averse to worldly life and yearned for a peaceful and pure land. He understood the intricacies of a number of Buddhist concepts, such as “emptiness” (wu 無) and “mind” (xin 心). He sometimes compared and combined Buddhist theories with poetic creation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

22 pages, 13387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Writing and Worship in Deng Zhimo’s Saints Trilogy

by Noga Ganany

Religions 2022, 13(2), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13020128 - 29 Jan 2022

Viewed by 3292

Abstract

Around the turn of the seventeenth century, the prolific writer-editor Deng Zhimo produced three illustrated books narrating the lives of Lü Dongbin (The Flying Sword), Xu Xun (The Iron Tree), and Sa Shoujian (The Enchanted Date). This [...] Read more.

Around the turn of the seventeenth century, the prolific writer-editor Deng Zhimo produced three illustrated books narrating the lives of Lü Dongbin (The Flying Sword), Xu Xun (The Iron Tree), and Sa Shoujian (The Enchanted Date). This article focuses on the textual hybridity of Deng Zhimo’s hagiographic Saints Trilogy and argues that it offers encyclopedic, practical, and entertaining guidebooks for worshipping the three immortals and pursuing Daoist attainment. The cultic lore woven into the fabric of Deng’s Saints Trilogy reflects the important contribution of authors and publishers to popular reverence, highlighting the close interplay between “literature” and “religion” in late-imperial China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

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17 pages, 1114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ritual, Legend, and Metaphor: Narratives of the Willow in Yuan Zaju

by Qian Wang and Qiong Yang

Religions 2022, 13(1), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13010055 - 07 Jan 2022

Viewed by 2169

Abstract

Narratives of willow trees in Yuan zaju 雜劇, or variety play, largely come in three types, namely, the ritual performance of shooting willows; the deliverance of willow spirits by Lü Dongbin, one of the Eight Immortals of Daoism; and the use of the [...] Read more.

Narratives of willow trees in Yuan zaju 雜劇, or variety play, largely come in three types, namely, the ritual performance of shooting willows; the deliverance of willow spirits by Lü Dongbin, one of the Eight Immortals of Daoism; and the use of the word willow to refer to women. The willow shooting ritual depicted in Yuan zaju was highly reminiscent of the willow shooting ritual popular throughout the Song (960–1279), Liao (916–1125), Jin (1115–1234), and Yuan (1271–1368) dynasties, with its conceptual origins traceable to the ancient shamanic belief in the willow as a sacred tree prevalent among the Khitans and Jurchens who lived in what is now northeastern China. The legend of Lü Dongbin delivering a willow spirit to immortality is a recurring motif in Han Chinese folklore and Daoist hagiography, which also finds expression in the iconic image of Guanyin Pusa or Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara holding a willow branch with which they cure diseases for people and bring fulfillment to their wishes. The frequent use of “willow leaf-shaped eyebrows” (liumei 柳眉) and “willow-like waist” (liuyao 柳腰) in Yuan zaju as metaphorical references to women can be seen as a continuation of the great literary tradition of Shijing 詩經 (The Book of Songs) and also as a dramatic enactment of the fertility cult of the willow and women in Chinese folk religion. Evidence abounds that the narratives about the willow in Yuan zaju were not a new creation but an artistic manifestation of centuries-old folk belief and literary tradition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

13 pages, 627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Daoism on the Dramatization of the Liaozhaixi of Chuanju

by Xing Lan

Religions 2022, 13(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13010020 - 27 Dec 2021

Viewed by 2334

Abstract

This study employs a collection of fresh resources of the Liaozhaixi of Chuanju (Sichuan opera) to examine the influence of Daoism upon the dramatization of Chinese theatre. In contrast to Buddhism, it has long been supposed that Daoism has exerted only a minor [...] Read more.

This study employs a collection of fresh resources of the Liaozhaixi of Chuanju (Sichuan opera) to examine the influence of Daoism upon the dramatization of Chinese theatre. In contrast to Buddhism, it has long been supposed that Daoism has exerted only a minor influence on Chinese theatre. Despite some progress after the year 2000, the research into Daoism’s influence on Chinese theatre is still in its infancy. Noting the gap in the literature, the study identifies that the Liaozhaixi of Chuanju has provided us with some exceptional insights into Daoism’s influence on Chinese theatre. Since 2012, the successive publication of 24 Liaozhaixi scripts of Chuanju allows us to more fully enter the exploration. Reinforced by these fresh resources, the study summarizes the influence of Daoism on the Liaozhaixi of Chuanju into two typical adaptation approaches, “transplantation” and “improvement”. By analyzing the two approaches, the study will manifest how Daoism has shaped the dramatization of the Liaozhaixi of Chuanju and will employ these approaches to exemplify the confluence of religions and dramas in Chinese folk culture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

71 pages, 54250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Form Follows Function in Community Rituals in North China: Temples and Temple Festivals in Jiacun Village

by Xiaohuan Zhao

Religions 2021, 12(12), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12121105 - 15 Dec 2021

Viewed by 4428

Abstract

Yingshen saishe or saishe is a general name for all types of temple festivals held to offer sacrifices to deities of local communities. With its roots traceable to ancient shamanic beliefs and practices, saishe demonstrates itself as a closely integrated form of [...] Read more.

Yingshen saishe or saishe is a general name for all types of temple festivals held to offer sacrifices to deities of local communities. With its roots traceable to ancient shamanic beliefs and practices, saishe demonstrates itself as a closely integrated form of religious ritual performance and musical/theatrical performance and proves to be instrumental in the development of Chinese theatre from ritual to drama. Based on my fieldwork on Jiacun Double-Fourth Temple Festival in May 2016, this paper offers a close examination of Jiacun temple culture and temple theatre with focus on the religious ritual performance and musical/theatrical entertainment presented during the festival. In so doing, this paper provides an enhanced understanding of the highly dynamic, interactive relationships between temple and theatre and between efficacy and entertainment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

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14 pages, 794 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Incorporating Folk Belief into National Heritage: The Interaction between Ritual Practice and Theatrical Performance in Xiud Yax Lus Qim (Yalu wang) of the Miao (Hmong) Ethnic Group

by Chao Guo, Huijuan Hua and Xiwen Geng

Religions 2021, 12(10), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12100899 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2565

Abstract

Xiud Yax Lus Qim or Yalu wang 亞魯王 (Ode to the King Yalu) is a type of oral performance inherited verbally and transmitted orally by dongb langf (donglang 東郎, chanters of Yalu wang) at funerals and festive occasions. As one of [...] Read more.

Xiud Yax Lus Qim or Yalu wang 亞魯王 (Ode to the King Yalu) is a type of oral performance inherited verbally and transmitted orally by dongb langf (donglang 東郎, chanters of Yalu wang) at funerals and festive occasions. As one of the most representative cultural sets of the Miao (Hmong) ethnic group located in southern China, Yalu wang is embedded in Miao sorcery beliefs and practices, and serves as a vehicle to unite the community and maintain the identity of the ethnic group. However, since Yalu wang was “discovered” as a heroic epic by scholars in 2009 and entered the government’s “List of National Intangible Cultural Heritage” two years later, different agencies have been vying to appropriate its cultural resources. Not only do local government authorities use it as a tourist attraction, stage performances have also produced various versions of Yalu wang to portray an emblem of what are presumed to be “authentic Miao cultures”. This article explores the interactive relationship between Miao sorcery and folk traditions in the oral performance of Yalu wang and their enactment and re-enactment in theatrical performances under the aegis of a state-endorsed tourism policy. In so doing, the discussion sheds new light on the bidirectional dynamics that not only remold the style of performing culture, but also facilitate religious synthesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

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15 pages, 2796 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Precious Scroll of the Blood Pond in the “Telling Scriptures” Tradition in Changshu, Jiangsu, China

by Rostislav Berezkin

Religions 2021, 12(10), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12100865 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1727

Abstract

The Precious Scroll of the Blood Pond is a newly discovered manuscript (copied ca. 1993), used in the “telling scriptures” tradition in Changshu, which represents ritualized storytelling based on the vernacular narrative texts called “precious scrolls” (baojuan). The local tradition of [...] Read more.

The Precious Scroll of the Blood Pond is a newly discovered manuscript (copied ca. 1993), used in the “telling scriptures” tradition in Changshu, which represents ritualized storytelling based on the vernacular narrative texts called “precious scrolls” (baojuan). The local tradition of “telling scriptures” can be traced back to the 19th century, though it may have even earlier origins. While it has been generally accepted that precious scrolls had ritual functions in the late imperial period, little research has been done on the local varieties of this type of storytelling in connection with ritual practices. The material of the Precious Scroll of the Blood Pond from Changshu demonstrates how the Mulian story, widely known in China, has been adapted to the folk ritual of the afterlife salvation of a female soul through repentance of her sin of physiological impurity. While the related ritual in the neighboring Jingjiang on the northern bank of the Yangtze River has been thoroughly studied, the Changshu practice has received little attention of scholars so far. The Precious Scroll of the Blood Pond from Changshu demonstrates that the Mulian narrative was also associated with the ritual of “breaking the Blood Pond” in the Jiangnan areas, which also provides a new angle of evaluation of the Jingjiang tradition of “telling scriptures”. This article discusses relations between modern ritual practices and several variants of the Precious Scroll of the Blood Pond, mainly using fieldwork materials collected by the author in Changshu and adjacent areas in 2011–2018. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

14 pages, 1056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Writings, Emotions, and Oblations: The Religious-Ritual Origin of the Classical Confucian Conception of Cheng (Sincerity)

by Jinhua Jia

Religions 2021, 12(6), 382; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12060382 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2593

Abstract

Cheng 誠 (sincerity) is one of the primary concepts in the Confucian tradition as well as Chinese intellectual history. Its rich implications involve dimensions of religion, ritual, folk belief, ethics, psychology, cosmology, metaphysics, aesthetics, and literature. In the Confucian classics, cheng is described [...] Read more.

Cheng 誠 (sincerity) is one of the primary concepts in the Confucian tradition as well as Chinese intellectual history. Its rich implications involve dimensions of religion, ritual, folk belief, ethics, psychology, cosmology, metaphysics, aesthetics, and literature. In the Confucian classics, cheng is described as the “Dao of heaven”; humans through cultivation can reach the mysterious state of “the utmost sincerity functioning as spirits” and thus can “assist the transforming and generating power of heaven and earth.” Because of cheng’s rich, sacred, and mysterious implications, it has been regarded as the most difficult and perplexing of Chinese concepts. Scholars have long studied cheng mainly from the perspective of philosophy to analyze its ideological conceptions in the Confucian classics, resulting in fruitful and inspiring interpretations. However, because they have not traced the origin of cheng to its rich religious, ritual, and literary sources, their interpretations have been unable to answer the question: why is cheng covered with such a mysterious veil? In recent decades, some scholars have started exploring cheng’s relationship with ancient religious beliefs and rituals, but so far a comprehensive examination of the religious-ritual origin of this significant concept remains lacking. To discover cheng’s mysterious origins, we must apply a synthetic approach of etymological, religious, philosophical, and literary studies. Drawing upon both transmitted and excavated texts, this essay first analyzes the graphic-phonetic structure and semantic implications of the character cheng 成 (completion), which was the character cheng’s 誠 early form. It then examines the rich meanings implied in both characters related to sacrificial-divinatory rituals, including invoking the spirits with sincere writings, emotions, and oblations, in order to seduce them to descend and enjoy the offerings, as well as perfectively completing the human-spirit communication. Finally, the essay discusses how those religious beliefs and ritual ceremonies evolved into Confucian ethical values and aesthetic concepts, thus lifting the mysterious veil from cheng. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Folk Belief in Chinese Literature and Theatre)

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