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38 pages, 218587 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Bio-Indicator Pilot Study Screening Selected Heavy Metals in Female Hair, Nails, and Serum from Lifestyle Cosmetic, Canned Food, and Manufactured Drink Choices

by Asmaa Fathi Hamouda and Shifa Felemban

Molecules 2023, 28(14), 5582; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28145582 - 22 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1157

Abstract

Lifestyles, genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and geographical regions are considered key factors of heavy metals initiatives related to health issues. Heavy metals enter the body via the environment, daily lifestyle, foods, beverages, cosmetics, and other products. The accumulation of heavy metals in the [...] Read more.

Lifestyles, genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and geographical regions are considered key factors of heavy metals initiatives related to health issues. Heavy metals enter the body via the environment, daily lifestyle, foods, beverages, cosmetics, and other products. The accumulation of heavy metals in the human body leads to neurological issues, carcinogenesis, failure of multiple organs in the body, and a reduction in sensitivity to treatment. We screened for Cr, Al, Pb, and Cd in selected foods, beverages, and cosmetics products depending on questionnaire outcomes from female volunteers. We also screened for Cr, Al, Pb, and Cd on hair, nails, and serum samples using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) from the same volunteers, and we analyzed the serum cholinesterase and complete blood picture (CBC). We performed an AutoDock study on Cr, Al, Pb, and Cd as potential ligands. Our results indicate that the most elevated heavy metal in the cosmetic sample was Al. In addition, in the food and beverages samples, it was Pb and Al, respectively. The results of the questionnaire showed that 71 percent of the female volunteers used the studied cosmetics, food, and beverages, which were contaminated with Cr, Al, Pb, and Cd, reflecting the high concentration of Cr, Al, Cd, and Pb in the three different types of biological samples of sera, nails, and hair of the same females, with 29 percent of the female volunteers not using the products in the studied samples. Our results also show an elevated level of cholinesterase in the serum of group 1 that was greater than group 2, and this result was confirmed by AutoDock. Moreover, the negative variation in the CBC result was compared with the reference ranges. Future studies should concentrate on the actions of these heavy metal contaminations and their potential health consequences for various human organs individually. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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10 pages, 993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GC-MS Silylation Derivative Method to Characterise Black BIC^® Ballpoint 2-Phenoxyethanol Ratio Evaporation Profile—A Contribution to Ink Ageing Estimation

by Teresa Argente Leal, Carla Ferreira, Ana Ribeiro, Samir Marcos Ahmad, Alexandre Quintas and Alexandra Bernardo

Molecules 2023, 28(12), 4781; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28124781 - 15 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1144

Abstract

One of the major challenges in forensic document analysis is estimating the age of ink deposition on a manually written document. The present work aims to develop and optimise a methodology, based on the evaporation of 2-phenoxyethanol (PE) over time, that can contribute [...] Read more.

One of the major challenges in forensic document analysis is estimating the age of ink deposition on a manually written document. The present work aims to develop and optimise a methodology, based on the evaporation of 2-phenoxyethanol (PE) over time, that can contribute to ink age estimation. A black BIC^® Crystal Ballpoint Pen was purchased in a commercial area, and ink deposition began in September 2016 over 1095 days. For each ink sample, 20 microdiscs were subjected to n-hexane extraction in the presence of an internal standard (ethyl benzoate) followed by derivatisation with a silylation reagent. A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method was optimised for PE-trimethylsilyl (PE-TMS) to characterise the ageing curve. The developed method presented good linearity between 0.5 and 50.0 μg mL⁻¹, as well as limits of detection and quantification of 0.026 and 0.104 μg mL⁻¹, respectively. It was possible to characterise PE-TMS concentration over time, which reveals a two-phase decay behaviour. First, there was a substantial decline between the 1st and the 33rd day of deposition, followed a by a stabilisation of the signal, which allowed to detect the presence of PE-TMS up to 3 years. Two unknown compounds were also present and allowed to identify three dating time frames for the same ink stroke: (i) between time 0 and 33 days, (ii) between time 34 and 109 days, and (iii) more than 109 days. The developed methodology allowed to characterise the behaviour of PE over time and to establish a relative dating of three-time frames. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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20 pages, 6622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Phosphodiesterase Type-5 Inhibitors (PDE-5) in Dietary Supplements

by Oana Ramona Cătălina Gheorghiu, Anne Marie Ciobanu, Claudia Maria Guțu, Carmen Lidia Chițescu, Giorgiana Valentina Costea, Daniela Mădălina Anghel, Ana Maria Vlasceanu and Daniela Luiza Baconi

Molecules 2023, 28(10), 4116; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28104116 - 16 May 2023

Viewed by 1805

Abstract

This study proposed a high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) screening method to detect phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE-5) inhibitors as possible adulterant agents in various dietary supplements. Chromatographic analysis was performed on silica gel 60F254 plates using a mixture of ethyl acetate:toluene:methanol:ammonia in a volume ratio [...] Read more.

This study proposed a high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) screening method to detect phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE-5) inhibitors as possible adulterant agents in various dietary supplements. Chromatographic analysis was performed on silica gel 60F254 plates using a mixture of ethyl acetate:toluene:methanol:ammonia in a volume ratio of 50:30:20:0.5 as a mobile phase. The system provided compact spots and symmetrical peaks of sildenafil and tadalafil with retardation factor values of 0.55 and 0.90, respectively. The analysis of products purchased from the internet or specialized stores demonstrated the presence of sildenafil, tadalafil, or both compounds in 73.3% of products, highlighting inadequacies and inconsistencies in the labeling, as all dietary supplements were declared to be natural. The results were confirmed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a positive electrospray ionization high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS-MS) method. Furthermore, in some samples, vardenafil and various analogs of PDE-5 inhibitors were detected using a non-target HRMS-MS approach. The results of the quantitative analysis revealed similar findings between the two methods, with adulterant quantities found to be similar to or higher than those in approved medicinal products. This study demonstrated that the HPTLC method is a suitable and economical method for screening PDE-5 inhibitors as adulterants in dietary supplements intended for sexual activity enhancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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13 pages, 1635 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simple Method for the Determination of THC and THC-COOH in Human Postmortem Blood Samples by Gas Chromatography—Mass Spectrometry

by Ivan Álvarez-Freire, Anxa Valeiras-Fernández, Pamela Cabarcos-Fernández, Ana María Bermejo-Barrera and María Jesús Tabernero-Duque

Molecules 2023, 28(8), 3586; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28083586 - 20 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1821

Abstract

A simple and sensitive analytical method was developed for qualitative and quantitative analysis of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and its metabolite 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-carboxylic acid (Δ9-THC-COOH) in human postmortem blood using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. The method involved a liquid-liquid extraction [...] Read more.

A simple and sensitive analytical method was developed for qualitative and quantitative analysis of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and its metabolite 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-carboxylic acid (Δ9-THC-COOH) in human postmortem blood using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. The method involved a liquid-liquid extraction in two steps, one for Δ9-THC and a second one for Δ9-THC-COOH. The first extract was analyzed using Δ9-THC-D3 as internal standard. The second extract was derivatized and analyzed using Δ9-THC-COOH-D3 as internal standard. The method was shown to be very simple, rapid, and sensitive. The method was validated for the two compounds, including linearity (range 0.05–1.5 µg/mL for Δ9-THC and 0.08–1.5 µg/mL for Δ9-THC-COOH), and the main precision parameters. It was linear for both analytes, with quadratic regression of calibration curves always higher than 0.99. The coefficients of variation were less than 15%. Extraction recoveries were superior to 80% for both compounds. The developed method was used to analyze 41 real plasma samples obtained from the Forensic Toxicology Service of the Institute of Forensic Sciences of Santiago de Compostela (Spain) from cases in which the use of cannabis was involved, demonstrating the usefulness of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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17 pages, 3597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Trend in Toxicological Screening Using Volumetric Absorptive Microsampling (VAMS) and High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (HR/MS) Combination

by Pascal Houzé, Ilona Borowski, Eugénie Bito, Romain Magny, Athina Morcos, Sebastian Voicu, Bruno Mégarbane and Laurence Labat

Molecules 2023, 28(8), 3466; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28083466 - 14 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1457

Abstract

In toxicology, screenings are routinely performed using chromatographic methods coupled to detection systems such as high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR/MS). The increase in specificity and sensitivity of HRMS is responsible for the development of methods for alternative samples such as Volumetric Adsorptive Micro-Sampling. Whole [...] Read more.

In toxicology, screenings are routinely performed using chromatographic methods coupled to detection systems such as high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR/MS). The increase in specificity and sensitivity of HRMS is responsible for the development of methods for alternative samples such as Volumetric Adsorptive Micro-Sampling. Whole blood overloaded with 90 drugs was sampled with 20 µL Mitra^TM to optimize the pre-analytical step as well as to determine the identification limits of drugs. Elution of chemicals was carried out in a solvent mixture through agitation and sonication. After dissolution, 10 μL was injected into the chromatographic system coupled to the Orbitrap^TM HR/MS. Compounds were confirmed against the laboratory library. The clinical feasibility was assessed in fifteen poisoned patients using the simultaneous sampling of plasma, whole blood and Mitra^TM. The optimized extraction procedure allowed us to confirm 87 compounds out of the 90 present in the spiked whole blood. Cannabis derivatives were not detected. For 82.2% of the investigated drugs, the identification limits were below 12.5 ng·mL⁻¹, with the extraction yields ranging from 80.6 to 108.7%. Regarding the patients’ analysis, 98% of the compounds in plasma were detected in Mitra^TM compared to whole blood, with a satisfying concordance (R² = 0.827). Our novel screening approach opens new insights into different toxicologic fields appropriate for pediatrics, forensics or to perform mass screening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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13 pages, 2626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MALDI MSI Separation of Same Donor’s Fingermarks Based on Time of Deposition—A Proof-of-Concept Study

by Kim Frisch, Kristine Lykke Nielsen and Simona Francese

Molecules 2023, 28(6), 2763; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062763 - 19 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1625

Abstract

Despite the advent of DNA profiling, fingerprints still play an important role in suspect identification. However, if single crime scene marks may be challenging to identify, overlapping fingermarks, understandably, pose an even greater challenge. In the last decade, mass spectrometry-imaging methods have provided [...] Read more.

Despite the advent of DNA profiling, fingerprints still play an important role in suspect identification. However, if single crime scene marks may be challenging to identify, overlapping fingermarks, understandably, pose an even greater challenge. In the last decade, mass spectrometry-imaging methods have provided a possible solution to the separation of fingermarks from two or more donors, based on the differential chemical composition. However, there are no studies attempting to separate overlapping marks from the same donor. This is important in relation to fingermark deposition at different times, which could be critical, for example, to ascertain legitimate access to the scene. In the work presented here, we investigate whether Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionisation Mass Spectrometry Imaging can separate the same donor’s fingermarks deposited at different times based on intra-donor fingermark composition variability. Additionally, the hypothesis that the different times of deposition could be also determined was investigated in the view of linking the suspect at the scene at different times; the dating window of MALDI MSI within the selected molecular range was explored. Results show that it is possible to separate overlapping fingermarks from the same donor in most cases, even from natural marks. Fresh marks (0 days) could be separated from those of fourteen days of age, though the latter could not be distinguished from the set aged for seven days. Due to the use of only one donor, these are to be considered preliminary data, though findings are interesting enough to warrant further investigation of the capabilities and limitations of this approach using a larger cohort of donors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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15 pages, 3441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Drugs in Saliva of US Military Veterans Treated for Substance Use Disorders Using Supported Liquid Extraction and Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectral Analysis

by Stuart Farquharson, Chetan Shende, Jenelle Newcomb, Ismene L. Petrakis and Albert J. Arias

Molecules 2023, 28(5), 2010; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28052010 - 21 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1665

Abstract

According to the Center for Disease Control, there were more than 107,000 US drug overdose deaths in 2021, over 80,000 of which due to opioids. One of the more vulnerable populations is US military veterans. Nearly 250,000 military veterans suffer from substance-related disorders [...] Read more.

According to the Center for Disease Control, there were more than 107,000 US drug overdose deaths in 2021, over 80,000 of which due to opioids. One of the more vulnerable populations is US military veterans. Nearly 250,000 military veterans suffer from substance-related disorders (SRD). For those seeking treatment, buprenorphine is prescribed to help treat opioid use disorder (OUD). Urinalysis is currently used to monitor buprenorphine adherence as well as to detect illicit drug use during treatment. Sometimes sample tampering occurs if patients seek to generate a false positive buprenorphine urine test or mask illicit drugs, both of which can compromise treatment. To address this problem, we have been developing a point-of-care (POC) analyzer that can rapidly measure both medications used for treatment and illicit drugs in patient saliva, ideally in the physi-cian’s office. The two-step analyzer employs (1) supported liquid extraction (SLE) to isolate the drugs from the saliva and (2) surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) to detect the drugs. A prototype SLE-SERS-POC analyzer was used to quantify buprenorphine at ng/mL concentrations and identify illicit drugs in less than 1 mL of saliva collected from 20 SRD veterans in less than 20 min. It correctly detected buprenorphine in 19 of 20 samples (18 true positives, 1 true negative and 1 false negative). It also identified 10 other drugs in patient samples: acetaminophen, amphetamine, cannabidiol, cocaethylene, codeine, ibuprofen, methamphetamine, methadone, nicotine, and norbuprenorphine. The prototype analyzer shows evidence of accuracy in measuring treatment medications and relapse to drug use. Further study and development of the system is warranted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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11 pages, 1669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GC-MS Analysis of Methadone and EDDP in Addicted Patients under Methadone Substitution Treatment: Comparison of Urine and Plasma as Biological Samples

by Daniela-Mădălina Ciucă Anghel, Anne-Marie Ciobanu, Claudia Maria Guțu, Miriana Stan, Gheorghe Tudor and Daniela Luiza Baconi

Molecules 2022, 27(23), 8360; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27238360 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1833

Abstract

(1) Background: Methadone, along with buprenorphine, is the most commonly used drug for the treatment of opioid dependence. This study aimed to analyze methadone and its major metabolite, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenyl pyrrolidine (EDDP), in the urine and plasma of opiate addicts. The study group consisted [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Methadone, along with buprenorphine, is the most commonly used drug for the treatment of opioid dependence. This study aimed to analyze methadone and its major metabolite, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenyl pyrrolidine (EDDP), in the urine and plasma of opiate addicts. The study group consisted of drug users voluntarily admitted to the detoxification center C.E.T.T.T. “St. Stelian” of Bucharest. Secondly, the study aimed to identify whether urine or plasma provides better results for the proposed method. (2) Methods: A GC-MS method, using an internal standard (diphenylamine) in the FULL-SCAN and SIM modes of operation and using the m/z = 72 ion for methadone and the m/z = 277 ion for EDDP, combined with a liquid–liquid extraction procedure was performed. (3) Results: The applied procedure allows the detection and quantification of methadone in both urine and plasma samples. EDDP was identified in patients with higher levels of methadone. Higher levels of methadone were detected in urine than in plasma samples. (4) Conclusions: This procedure can be used in clinical laboratories for the rapid determination of methadone levels in urine rather than in plasma. The procedure can be applied for the monitoring of methadone substitution treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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15 pages, 2288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Mifepristone (RU-486) and Its Metabolites in Maternal Blood Sample after Pharmacological Abortion

by Paweł Szpot, Olga Wachełko, Tomasz Jurek and Marcin Zawadzki

Molecules 2022, 27(21), 7605; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27217605 - 06 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4336

Abstract

The aim of the study was the development and validation of the UHPLC-QqQ-MS/MS method for the determination of mifepristone in human blood as well as the identification and quantification of its metabolites after self-induced pharmacological abortion. The metabolic pathway in humans was proposed [...] Read more.

The aim of the study was the development and validation of the UHPLC-QqQ-MS/MS method for the determination of mifepristone in human blood as well as the identification and quantification of its metabolites after self-induced pharmacological abortion. The metabolic pathway in humans was proposed after examination of an authentic casework. The fast and simple preanalytical procedure was successfully applied (pH9, tert-butyl-methyl ether). The validation parameters of the method were as follows: limit of quantification: 0.5 ng/mL; coefficients of determination: >0.999 (R²), intra- and inter-day accuracy and precision values did not exceed ± 13.2%. The recovery and matrix effect were in the range of 96.3–114.7% and from −3.0 to 14.7%, respectively. Toxicological analysis of the mother’s blood (collected the day after the pregnancy termination) revealed the presence of five compounds: mifepristone (557.4 ng/mL), N-desmethyl-mifepristone (638.7 ng/mL), 22-OH-mifepristone (176.9 ng/mL), N,N-didesmethyl-mifepristone (144.5 ng/mL) and N-desmethyl-hydroxy-mifepristone (qualitatively). To our knowledge, the study presented in this paper is the first report on the concentrations of mifepristone and its metabolites in maternal blood samples after performing a self-induced abortion. The established UHPLC-QqQ-MS/MS method is suitable for forensic toxicological analysis as well as in terms of clinical toxicology in future investigations (examination of pharmacokinetics, bioavailability and metabolism of RU-486). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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17 pages, 2776 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Determination of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Urine Samples after In-Matrix Derivatization and Fabric Phase Sorptive Extraction-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis

by Bharti Jain, Rajeev Jain, Abuzar Kabir and Shweta Sharma

Molecules 2022, 27(21), 7188; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27217188 - 24 Oct 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 1884

Abstract

Fabric phase sorptive extraction (FPSE) has become a popular sorptive-based microextraction technique for the rapid analysis of a wide variety of analytes in complex matrices. The present study describes a simple and green analytical protocol based on in-matrix methyl chloroformate (MCF) derivatization of [...] Read more.

Fabric phase sorptive extraction (FPSE) has become a popular sorptive-based microextraction technique for the rapid analysis of a wide variety of analytes in complex matrices. The present study describes a simple and green analytical protocol based on in-matrix methyl chloroformate (MCF) derivatization of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) drugs in urine samples followed by FPSE and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Use of MCF as derivatizing reagent saves substantial amounts of time, reagent and energy, and can be directly performed in aqueous samples without any sample pre-treatment. The derivatized analytes were extracted using sol–gel Carbowax 20M coated FPSE membrane and eluted in 0.5 mL of MeOH for GC-MS analysis. A chemometric design of experiment-based approach was utilized comprising a Placket–Burman design (PBD) and central composite design (CCD) for screening and optimization of significant variables of derivatization and FPSE protocol, respectively. Under optimized conditions, the proposed FPSE-GC-MS method exhibited good linearity in the range of 0.1–10 µg mL⁻¹ with coefficients of determination (R²) in the range of 0.998–0.999. The intra-day and inter-day precisions for the proposed method were lower than <7% and <10%, respectively. The developed method has been successfully applied to the determination of NSAIDs in urine samples of patients under their medication. Finally, the green character of the proposed method was evaluated using ComplexGAPI tool. The proposed method will pave the way for simper analysis of polar drugs by FPSE-GC-MS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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14 pages, 1107 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forensic Toxicological Aspects of Misoprostol Use in Pharmacological Abortions

by Paweł Szpot, Olga Wachełko and Marcin Zawadzki

Molecules 2022, 27(19), 6534; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27196534 - 03 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4275

Abstract

The aim of this study was establishment of an UHPLC-QqQ-MS/MS method for the deter-mination of misoprostol acid in biological specimens in cases of pharmacological abortions. Forensic toxicological examination was performed in three different biological samples (whole blood, placenta and fetal liver). The validation [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was establishment of an UHPLC-QqQ-MS/MS method for the deter-mination of misoprostol acid in biological specimens in cases of pharmacological abortions. Forensic toxicological examination was performed in three different biological samples (whole blood, placenta and fetal liver). The validation parameters of the method were as follows: limit of detection: 25 pg/mL; limit of quantification: 50 pg/mL, coefficient of determination: >0.999 (R²), intra- and interday accuracy and precision: not greater than 13.7%. The recovery and matrix effect were in the range of 88.3–95.1% and from −11.7 to −4.9%, respectively. Toxicological analysis of the mother’s blood (collected two days after pregnancy termination) did not reveal any abortifacients; however, misoprostol acid was found in the placenta (793 pg/g) and fetal liver (309 pg/g). The second case involved a fetus found near a garbage container. The concentration of misoprostol acid in the placenta was 2332 pg/g. In the presented study, an extensive literature review of misoprostol pharmacokinetics studies was performed. To our knowledge, the UHPLC-QqQ-MS/MS technique presented in this paper is the first quantitative method applied for forensic toxicological purposes. In addition, postmortem concentrations of misoprostol acid in miscarried fetuses due to illegal abortions were reported for the first time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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Review

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25 pages, 665 KiB

Open AccessReview

Chemical Analysis of Gunpowder and Gunshot Residues

by Miguel Serol, Samir Marcos Ahmad, Alexandre Quintas and Carlos Família

Molecules 2023, 28(14), 5550; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28145550 - 20 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5065

Abstract

The identification of firearms is of paramount importance for investigating crimes involving firearms, as it establishes the link between a particular firearm and firearm-related elements found at a crime scene, such as projectiles and cartridge cases. This identification relies on the visual comparison [...] Read more.

The identification of firearms is of paramount importance for investigating crimes involving firearms, as it establishes the link between a particular firearm and firearm-related elements found at a crime scene, such as projectiles and cartridge cases. This identification relies on the visual comparison of such elements against reference samples from suspect firearms or those existing in databases. Whenever this approach is not possible, the chemical analysis of the gunpowder and gunshot residue can provide additional information that may assist in establishing a link between samples retrieved at a crime scene and those from a suspect or in the identification of the corresponding model and manufacturer of the ammunition used. The most commonly used method for the chemical analysis of gunshot residue is scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray, which focuses on the inorganic elements present in ammunition formulation, particularly heavy metals. However, a change in the legal paradigm is pushing changes in these formulations to remove heavy metals due to their potential for environmental contamination and the health hazards they represent. For this reason, the importance of the analysis of organic compounds is leading to the adoption of a different set of analytical methodologies, mostly based on spectroscopy and chromatography. This manuscript reviews the constitution of primer and gunpowder formulations and the analytical methods currently used for detecting, characterising, and identifying their compounds. In addition, this contribution also explores how the information provided by these methodologies can be used in ammunition identification and how it is driving the development of novel applications within forensic ballistics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Analysis in Chemistry)

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