Research

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20 pages, 7331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis and Characterization of Sustainable Eco-Friendly Alkali-Activated High-Content Iron Ore Tailing Bricks

by Xiangyang Kang, Yanman Li, Wei Li, Yuxian Zhou, Jiarui Cui, Baohua Cai, Yong Zi, Jing Fang, Yongqing Chen, Senlin Li and Xin Kang

Buildings 2023, 13(11), 2743; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112743 - 30 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 835

Abstract

With the development of urbanization, the demand for bricks continues to increase. However, traditional brick production methods result in significant energy consumption and environmental pollution. In Hebei Province, China, historical mineral extraction activities have left behind substantial iron ore tailings (IOT). With the [...] Read more.

With the development of urbanization, the demand for bricks continues to increase. However, traditional brick production methods result in significant energy consumption and environmental pollution. In Hebei Province, China, historical mineral extraction activities have left behind substantial iron ore tailings (IOT). With the objective of recycling IOT resources and promoting ecological restoration and sustainable development, the feasibility of producing alkali-activated bricks using iron ore tailings was explored. This study primarily utilized IOT supplemented with ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) to successfully synthesize sustainable eco-friendly alkali-activated high-content IOT bricks. Experimental investigations were conducted to explore the effects of the raw material mixing ratio, content, and modulus of the alkaline activator, molding pressure, and grain size distribution on the strength. The research demonstrated that the IOT: GGBS ratio of 85:15 met the requirements of the Chinese JC/T422-2007 MU25 standard, resulting in compressive and flexural strengths of 31.72 MPa and 2.83 MPa, respectively. Increasing the alkali activator content enhanced the brick strength, with an optimal alkali activator modulus of 1 M. Moreover, the molding pressure significantly improved brick strength and also enhanced the particle-to-particle contact density. Bricks prepared using finer particle size IOT exhibited higher compressive strength, whereas flexural strength remained relatively unaffected by particle size distribution. Furthermore, a comprehensive analysis of the microstructure and alkali activation mechanism of IOT-GGBS bricks was performed using XRD, SEM, FTIR, and AFM techniques. The results indicated that IOT primarily acted as an aggregate and partially participated in the reaction, whereas GGBS reacted extensively, generating C-S-H gel and C-A-H, providing robust bonding strength. Additionally, the increase in GGBS content led to the partial disintegration of some IOT particles, forming more stable aggregates under the influence of the C-S-H gel. This study offers theoretical guidance for the efficient utilization of IOT in construction materials, thereby contributing to the promotion of sustainable development and environmental conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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18 pages, 7293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Durability Deterioration of Geopolymer Stabilized Soft Soil under Sodium Sulfate and Magnesium Sulfate Attack: A Comparative Study

by Xinxiang Yi, Guanci Wang, Benben Zhang, Genbao Zhang, Yuming Liu and Zhengdong Luo

Buildings 2023, 13(4), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13041075 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 969

Abstract

Sulfate attack is one of the non-negligible factors that induces deterioration in the performance and life cycle of soil stabilizers. In this paper, the degradation mechanism of the durability of slag–fly-ash-based geopolymer stabilized soft soil (hitherto referred to as SF-GSSS) under the sodium [...] Read more.

Sulfate attack is one of the non-negligible factors that induces deterioration in the performance and life cycle of soil stabilizers. In this paper, the degradation mechanism of the durability of slag–fly-ash-based geopolymer stabilized soft soil (hitherto referred to as SF-GSSS) under the sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) attack environment is comparatively investigated, and the slag/fly ash ratios are set to S10F0, S9F1, S8F2, and S7F3. The SF-GSSS was fully immersed in a 2.5% Na₂SO₄ solution and 2.5% MgSO₄ solution, respectively, to characterize the deterioration rules via visual observations, an unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test, and by mass change. The effect of sulfate on the microstructural characteristics of the SF-GSSS were determined by different microanalytical means, such as by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the SF-GSSS immersed in a MgSO₄ solution displayed significant physical deterioration, but not when in a Na₂SO₄ solution. The mass growth of the SF-GSSS when immersed in a Na₂SO₄ solution was significantly lower than when it was immersed in a MgSO₄ solution at the same immersion age. The rate of strength loss was lowest for S9F1 and highest for S7F3 at the end of immersion, regardless of its immersion in Na₂SO₄ or MgSO₄ solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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12 pages, 1311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Sustainable and Natural Looking on Perceived Aesthetics and Eco-Friendliness in Building Material Evaluation

by Yaqi Zhang, Yao Song and Jing Luo

Buildings 2023, 13(2), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020483 - 10 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1992

Abstract

With the development of material synthesis technology, many artificial materials imitating natural materials have emerged in the construction industry. The processing technology of these materials’ surface imitating natural texture is becoming more and more realistic. Some materials are not made of sustainable material [...] Read more.

With the development of material synthesis technology, many artificial materials imitating natural materials have emerged in the construction industry. The processing technology of these materials’ surface imitating natural texture is becoming more and more realistic. Some materials are not made of sustainable material but use natural textures to imitate natural materials, attempting to bring users a sense of being close to nature and ecology to attract consumers to use it. However, the intention of use still depends on the user’s other factors like health, aesthetics, and environmental friendliness of the material. Therefore, the challenge for material manufacturers and designers is to understand people’s perceptions of these materials to increase their acceptance by users. This paper aims to investigate the user’s perception of materials (sustainable-unsustainable) to evaluate their perception of naturalness, environmental friendliness, and aesthetics through the visual senses. A total of 112 participants participated in the experiment which was divided into two groups (professional architects and non-professionals). The judgment of non-professionals on the environmental protection of materials imitating natural skin is relatively accurate, which is almost consistent with the judgment of professionals. Results show the importance of maintaining the naturalness of the surface texture in the material, which can enhance the user’s demand for a natural aesthetic feeling. Therefore, it is important to maintain the naturalness of surface texture in the process of material surface treatment. Users’ natural perception of materials will affect their aesthetic perception of materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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16 pages, 10434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Deterioration of Medium-Rise-Wall Type Reinforced Concrete Buildings with External Insulation in Snowy Cold Districts

by Yusuke Adachi, Hideki Hirakawa, Akira Fukushima, Takeyoshi Uematsu, Koki Kikuta and Madoka Taniguchi

Buildings 2022, 12(12), 2048; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122048 - 22 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 977

Abstract

We have clarified that external insulation reduces the probability of reinforcement corrosion in reinforced concrete buildings in cold snowy districts by 45–78%. Renovation of external insulation is one of the effective methods for improving the insulation performance and durability of reinforced concrete buildings, [...] Read more.

We have clarified that external insulation reduces the probability of reinforcement corrosion in reinforced concrete buildings in cold snowy districts by 45–78%. Renovation of external insulation is one of the effective methods for improving the insulation performance and durability of reinforced concrete buildings, but there are almost no data that demonstrate durability. Therefore, the carbonation depth and the cover depth were investigated for six medium-rise-wall type reinforced concrete buildings in Hokkaido, Japan, which had been refurbished for external insulation. As a result, it was clarified that the external insulation suppressed the carbonation depth by 30% or more, even when the bonding method of the external insulation was different. In addition, it was clarified that the external insulation further suppressed carbonation in walls where the carbonation depth tended to increase in snowy cold districts. Specifically, external insulation reduced carbonation by up to 35% on surfaces that tend to dry out due to sunlight, and by 49% on surfaces that are affected by water that deteriorates the concrete surface layer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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20 pages, 3911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finite Element Analysis of Axially Loaded RC Walls with Openings Strengthened Using Textile Reinforced Mortar for Sustainable Structures

by Mohannad Alhusban and Azadeh Parvin

Buildings 2022, 12(11), 1993; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12111993 - 16 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1602

Abstract

Sustainable solutions in the building construction industry promotes the use of innovative materials such as textile reinforced mortar (TRM) as a strengthening technique resulting in a reduced life-cycle cost. This paper presents a nonlinear finite element analysis (FEA) of TRM strengthened RC walls [...] Read more.

Sustainable solutions in the building construction industry promotes the use of innovative materials such as textile reinforced mortar (TRM) as a strengthening technique resulting in a reduced life-cycle cost. This paper presents a nonlinear finite element analysis (FEA) of TRM strengthened RC walls with cut-out openings under axial loading. FEA models were developed and validated with two experimental tests from the literature. Subsequently, a parametric study was performed to investigate the contribution of TRM in strengthening RC walls considering various opening sizes, types, numbers and orientations of window openings, and TRM strengthening configurations. The parametric study results revealed that strengthened models with smaller opening sizes had higher axial strength enhancement. Furthermore, the increase in the axial load capacities of walls with door and window openings were 34 and 26%, respectively, as compared to the corresponding control ones. TRM was more effective with a lower opening aspect ratio (H_o/L_o). In addition, confining the wall piers with U-shaped TRM jackets was the most effective configuration in improving the walls’ axial strengths with maximum enhancements of 16 and 22% as compared to the models strengthened with side-bonded sheets and strips, respectively. Finally, the axial strengths of the FEA models were also compared with the existing empirical solution and showed reasonable correlation with an average discrepancy of 15%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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Graphical abstract

16 pages, 5579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Printable and Mechanical Performance of 3D Printed Concrete Employing Multiple Industrial Wastes

by Bolin Wang, Mingang Zhai, Xiaofei Yao, Qing Wu, Min Yang, Xiangyu Wang, Jizhuo Huang and Hongyu Zhao

Buildings 2022, 12(3), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12030374 - 17 Mar 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2587

Abstract

Three-dimensional concrete printing is a promising technology and attracts the significant attention of research and industry. However, printable and mechanical capacities are required for 3D printable cementitious materials. Moreover, the quantitative analysis methods of printable performance are limited and have low sensitivity. In [...] Read more.

Three-dimensional concrete printing is a promising technology and attracts the significant attention of research and industry. However, printable and mechanical capacities are required for 3D printable cementitious materials. Moreover, the quantitative analysis methods of printable performance are limited and have low sensitivity. In this study, the orthogonal experiment through samples combining 3D concrete printing method with fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast furnace slag was designed to obtain the printable and mechanical property influence of various mix proportions. Furthermore, multiple industrial wastes were utilized to improve material sustainability. Meanwhile, the static and dynamic extrusion pressure measured by the original 3D printing extrudability tester were verified to achieve a high-sensitivity evaluating indicator. Thereby, a novel high-sensitivity quantitative analysis method of printable capacity was established to explore the influence of industrial wastes usage on the printability of 3D printable mortars. The optimum dosage of fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast furnace slag was 20 wt.%, 15 wt.%, and 10 wt.%, respectively, based on printable and mechanical property experiments. Furthermore, the optimum dosage was employed to print the sample and achieved a higher compressive strength (56.3 MPa) than the control cast. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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17 pages, 6796 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combined Utilization of Construction and Demolition Waste and Propylene Fiber in Cement-Stabilized Soil

by Genbao Zhang, Zhiqing Ding, Runhong Zhang, Changfu Chen, Guihai Fu, Xiao Luo, Yufei Wang and Chao Zhang

Buildings 2022, 12(3), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12030350 - 14 Mar 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2450

Abstract

Construction and demolition (C&D) waste has become a research hotspot due to the need for environmental sustainability and strength enhancement of cementitious materials. However, wider applications of C&D waste are limited, as its non-homogeneous surface nature limits its workability. This research evaluated the [...] Read more.

Construction and demolition (C&D) waste has become a research hotspot due to the need for environmental sustainability and strength enhancement of cementitious materials. However, wider applications of C&D waste are limited, as its non-homogeneous surface nature limits its workability. This research evaluated the feasible utilization of C&D waste as aggregates in polypropylene-fiber-reinforced cement-stabilized soil (CSS) under sulfate-alkali activation. CSS specimens incorporated Portland cement and C&D waste in 10%, 20%, and 30% proportions. Also, polypropylene fiber after alkali activation by sodium sulfate (at 0.2%, 0.4%, and 0.8% dosing level) was defined as 1%, 2%, and 4%. Strength enhancement was examined through unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and flexural strength tests at 7, 14 and 28 days. Test results indicated that mechanical properties showed significant improvement with increasing levels of Portland cement and sodium sulfate, while the improvement dropped after excessive addition of C&D waste and polypropylene fiber. Optimal proportioning was determined as 30%, 4%, 20%, and 0.8% for Portland cement, polypropylene fiber, C&D waste, and sodium sulfate, respectively. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis attributed the enhancement to hydration product (ettringite) formation, bridging effect and increased particle friction. Additionally, the decrease in amplification was ascribed to the destruction of interface transition-zone (ITZ) strength, resulting in premature failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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20 pages, 2657 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Reliability Evaluation Framework of Three-Dimensional Engineering Slopes

by Genbao Zhang, Jianfeng Zhu, Changfu Chen, Renhua Tang, Shimin Zhu and Xiao Luo

Buildings 2022, 12(3), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12030268 - 24 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1931

Abstract

An analytical three-dimensional slope reliability evaluation framework was developed in this work independent of use of numerical simulations. The slope stability analysis was necessarily carried out by utilizing an extended three-dimensional Morgenstern–Price method, which was characterized by analytical formulations and competitive computational efficiency. [...] Read more.

An analytical three-dimensional slope reliability evaluation framework was developed in this work independent of use of numerical simulations. The slope stability analysis was necessarily carried out by utilizing an extended three-dimensional Morgenstern–Price method, which was characterized by analytical formulations and competitive computational efficiency. Incorporation of the presented stability analysis method into response surface methodology led to an effective slope reliability evaluation framework. The applicability and superiority of this framework was examined and validated using a real complicated landslide case reported in practice, and a hypothetical slope example widely adopted in the literature. The impact of correlation coefficients and probability distribution patterns on the slope reliability assessment results was further addressed to derive additional benefits of this framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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23 pages, 4880 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Mechanical Performance Prediction for Sustainable High-Strength Concrete Using Bio-Inspired Neural Network

by Junbo Sun, Jiaqing Wang, Zhaoyue Zhu, Rui He, Cheng Peng, Chao Zhang, Jizhuo Huang, Yufei Wang and Xiangyu Wang

Buildings 2022, 12(1), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12010065 - 10 Jan 2022

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 2168

Abstract

High-strength concrete (HSC) is a functional material possessing superior mechanical performance and considerable durability, which has been widely used in long-span bridges and high-rise buildings. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) is one of the most crucial parameters for evaluating HSC performance. Previously, the mix [...] Read more.

High-strength concrete (HSC) is a functional material possessing superior mechanical performance and considerable durability, which has been widely used in long-span bridges and high-rise buildings. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) is one of the most crucial parameters for evaluating HSC performance. Previously, the mix design of HSC is based on the laboratory test results which is time and money consuming. Nowadays, the UCS can be predicted based on the existing database to guide the mix design with the development of machine learning (ML) such as back-propagation neural network (BPNN). However, the BPNN’s hyperparameters (the number of hidden layers, the number of neurons in each layer), which is commonly adjusted by the traditional trial and error method, usually influence the prediction accuracy. Therefore, in this study, BPNN is utilised to predict the UCS of HSC with the hyperparameters tuned by a bio-inspired beetle antennae search (BAS) algorithm. The database is established based on the results of 324 HSC samples from previous literature. The established BAS-BPNN model possesses excellent prediction reliability and accuracy as shown in the high correlation coefficient (R = 0.9893) and low Root-mean-square error (RMSE = 1.5158 MPa). By introducing the BAS algorithm, the prediction process can be totally automatical since the optimal hyperparameters of BPNN are obtained automatically. The established BPNN model has the benefit of being applied in practice to support the HSC mix design. In addition, sensitivity analysis is conducted to investigate the significance of input variables. Cement content is proved to influence the UCS most significantly while superplasticizer content has the least significance. However, owing to the dataset limitation and limited performance of ML models which affect the UCS prediction accuracy, further data collection and model update must be implemented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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Review

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20 pages, 19678 KiB

Open AccessReview

Enhancing Performance of Engineering Structures under Dynamic Disasters with ECC–FRP Composites: A Review at Material and Member Levels

by Debo Zhao, Bin Chen and Jingming Sun

Buildings 2023, 13(8), 2099; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13082099 - 18 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1010

Abstract

Dynamic loadings arising from impact, explosive, and seismic disasters impose high requirements on the performance of engineering structures during service periods. Engineered cementitious composite (ECC) exhibits exceptional toughness and crack resistance, while fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) possesses lightweight and high-strength properties. ECC and FRP [...] Read more.

Dynamic loadings arising from impact, explosive, and seismic disasters impose high requirements on the performance of engineering structures during service periods. Engineered cementitious composite (ECC) exhibits exceptional toughness and crack resistance, while fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) possesses lightweight and high-strength properties. ECC and FRP composites show promising potential in enhancing the resilience of existing structures under dynamic disaster scenarios. However, most research on ECC and FRP has primarily focused on static properties, while investigations of dynamic properties are limited. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the dynamic properties of ECC and FRP composites followed by a summary of studies conducted on the dynamic behavior of ECC and FRP strengthened members, which provides valuable insights for further research on these materials and their applications in strengthening structures under dynamic disasters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Building Materials on Construction Sustainability)

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