Next Article in Journal
Characterization of the Nuclear Proteome of Chlamydomonas in Response to Salt Stress
Next Article in Special Issue
The Effect of Temperature on the Growth of Holopelagic Sargassum Species
Previous Article in Journal
A Review of Climate Change Impact Studies on Harmful Algal Blooms
Previous Article in Special Issue
Biochemical and Elemental Composition of Pelagic Sargassum Biomass Harvested across the Caribbean
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Phycology
Volume 2
Issue 3
10.3390/phycology2030014
phycology-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

A Review of a Decade of Local Projects, Studies and Initiatives of Atypical Influxes of Pelagic Sargassum on Mexican Caribbean Coasts

by
Judith Rosellón-Druker
1,*,
Edith Calixto-Pérez
1,
Elva Escobar-Briones
2,
Jaime González-Cano
3,
Luis Masiá-Nebot
4 and
Fernando Córdova-Tapia
2
1
Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT), Mexico City 03940, MEX, Mexico
2
Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (ICML), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City 04510, MEX, Mexico
3
Centro Regional de Investigación Pesquera de Puerto Morelos del Instituto Nacional de Pesca (INAPESCA), Puerto Morelos 77580, ROO, Mexico
4
Municipio de Solidaridad, Earth and Life University, Cancun 77727, ROO, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Phycology 2022, 2(3), 254-279; https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology2030014
Submission received: 20 April 2022 / Revised: 25 June 2022 / Accepted: 25 June 2022 / Published: 30 June 2022
(This article belongs to the Collection Sargassum Golden Tides, a Global Problem)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study collates and reviews the state of the art in the phenomenon of atypical pelagic Sargassum influxes in the coastline of the Mexican Caribbean, focusing on projects, studies and initiatives that have been conducted in the country for a decade. We integrated multisectoral and multidisciplinary knowledge and identified gaps and strengths in current knowledge. Initiatives and projects conducted in Mexico are numerous, diverse and valuable. However, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research and interinstitutional coordinated actions in the medium- and long-term are still lacking. Because of this, there is an imbalance of actions in different knowledge areas that prevents this phenomenon from being addressed in a comprehensive way. Furthermore, the funding opportunities for Sargassum research projects and other initiatives seem to respond to the events of massive influxes, without continuity or long-term planning. Attention is mainly focused on urban and touristic areas, so impacts to rural or uninhabited zones are unknown. This review represents a stepping-stone towards an integrated multisectoral effort to shift the perspective from Sargassum being a “national problem” to a “national resource,” considering and fully understanding the ecological importance of this macroalgae as a floating ecosystem and its potential as an economic resource once it massively arrives in Mexican coastal areas.

1. Introduction

Pelagic Sargassum is a genus of macroalgae (Sargassum natans and Sargassum fluitans) that constitutes an irreplaceable floating marine ecosystem in the open ocean [1]. These algae provide shelter, anchorage, food and migration routes for different marine species [2,3,4]. This ecosystem, documented in writing for the first time by Christopher Columbus in 1492, occurs in an area bounded by the North Atlantic subtropical gyre [5]. Given its ecological importance, in 2012 the Convention on Biological Diversity included the Sargasso Sea as an Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Area (EBSA) [6]. Moreover, in 2014, the Hamilton Declaration on Collaboration for the Conservation of the Sargasso Sea was signed. Its purpose was to provide a framework for intergovernmental collaboration to promote measures to minimize the adverse effects of human activities on this ecosystem, including overfishing, intensity of maritime traffic and pollution of water with plastic waste [7].
However, since 2011, an atypical and sustained growth of pelagic Sargassum has been observed in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean, reaching the coasts of several Caribbean countries [8] and coastal shores in West Africa [9]. This floating Sargassum grew in this area from low densities [10] to almost 20 million wet tons in an area of ~8850 km2 by June 2018 [11]. During its decomposition process on beaches and in shallow waters, the accumulation of Sargassum poses a risk to public health (e.g., by the release of gases such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and methane), stresses marine and coastal ecosystems (e.g., by alterations in the reef lagoon due to the blockage of sunlight, leachates generation and eutrophication of water), and threatens the tourism-based economy (e.g., by blocking access to sea activities and through visual devaluation of scenic beaches), among other detrimental effects [12,13,14].
A large proportion of Sargassum rafts arrive at the shorelines of the Quintana Roo state, affecting ~900 km of coastline and reaching volumes of up to 2 m3 per linear meter of beach [3,15]. Considering the multiple problems generated by the accumulation of these macroalgae along the Mexican Caribbean coast, many questions and concerns have been raised about the future behavior of this phenomenon [16]:
  • Will this phenomenon be the new normal within the Mexican Caribbean?
  • Will the phenomenon increase further in the future?
  • What are the factors that have contributed to massive growth in recent years?
  • Is this phenomenon related to climate change?
  • What are the main factors that determine population dynamics?
  • What factors contribute, control and determine spatial distribution?
  • Is it possible to manage this phenomenon?
  • What actions can be done locally to mitigate impacts before and after Sargassum arrives at the coasts?
  • Which are the best strategies to collect Sargassum along the coast without environmental and ecological effects?
  • What is the Sargassum elemental content variation in space and time?
  • How could Sargassum be sustainably used as an economically valuable resource, help in its immediate remotion?
  • What is the potential of Sargassum as raw material?
  • How much Sargassum will arrive, when and where?
The purpose of this paper is to describe the state of the art research of the phenomenon of atypical pelagic Sargassum influxes, the main knowledge gaps and needs, and the technological development and innovations achieved in Mexico in a decade (2010–2021) to shed light on the aforementioned questions. We described the state of the art through an exhaustive search process of existing information and the selection, organization and analysis of multisectoral sources of information.

2. Methods

2.1. State of the Art

A state of the art considers the most up-to-date or current research in a certain area or field of study. It is a modality of a review and documentary research that presents an analytical study of knowledge [17]. Through a state of the art, it is possible to understand the current trends and the main knowledge gaps in a specific subject. To describe the present state of the art we followed the two-phase method proposed by Londoño-Palacio et al. [18]. The heuristic phase consists of the searching for and compilation of information, while the hermeneutical phase consists of explaining, interpreting and analyzing the accumulated information [18]. The stages within each of these two phases are summarized in Figure 1.

2.2. Characteristics of the Heuristic Phase

For brevity purposes, we start describing our methods from stage 5 of Figure 1. During the information compilation stage, we considered several three-word combinations of the following keywords: “Sargassum,” “sargazo,” “arribazón,” “atypical influxes,” “Caribe Mexicano,” “natans,” “fluitans” and “Mexican Caribbean,” and we searched the results from various sources and types of information (Table 1). For stage 6, we only selected documents that met at least two of the following criteria: (a) studies, projects or initiatives carried out in Mexico between 2010 and the first trimester of 2021, (b) direct references to Sargassum atypical influxes to the Mexican Caribbean coasts, (c) mention of the species S. natans and/or S. fluitans that arrive to Mexico and (d) projects or initiatives conducted in other countries where Mexican researchers participated either as principal investigators, or as co-investigators. The rationale for limiting the search process to these criteria was to obtain a focused review of management and research actions related to these macroalgae in Mexico.
During this stage, experts were also identified and cataloged within the academic, private, civil, foreign and government sectors. Experts with at least two projects, initiatives or studies on Sargassum as principal investigators (or project leader) were included in this database. Additionally, previously existing directories in CONACYT and other federal government agencies (e.g., Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio Climático (INECC)) were also compiled.

2.3. Characteristics of the Hermeneutic Phase

During stage 1 of the hermeneutic phase, two databases were generated, one for projects, studies and initiatives, and the other for experts. The first database (Supplementary File S1) provides an in-depth overview of the diversity of actions that have been conducted in Mexico to address the pelagic Sargassum in the country since 2010. The fields’ description of this database can be consulted in Supplementary File S1.1. The second database (Supplementary File S2) provides a list of stakeholders (researchers, businesspeople, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) founders, private consultants, government officials, etc.) who are experts in different areas related to the Sargassum phenomenon. Fields’ description can be consulted in Supplementary File S2.1.

3. Results

3.1. Findings on the Mexican Government Strategy to Address the Phenomenon

Based on the generated databases and interviews with subject-experts, we distinguished three historical stages of actions to address the phenomenon in Mexico from the federal, state and local governments:
(1) Awareness of the problem: The massive influxes of Sargassum began to represent a social problem in Quintana Roo until 2015, when there was media coverage about these influxes for the first time; however, they were presented as a transitory event. This stage was characterized by an awareness that Sargassum is not a temporary situation with a limited impact, but will be a recurring wide-spread problem. The solutions implemented during this period were characterized by beach cleaning interventions by local and hotel authorities, with minimal intervention from the state and federal government, as well as very limited funding to generate new scientific knowledge.
(2) First actions: The massive influxes of 2015 and 2018 reframed the situation and its definition as a comprehensive, permanent and multinational challenge. The federal government invested 62 million Mexican pesos (~3 million USD) from the Fondo Nacional de Emergencias (FONDEN) and an additional budget of 240 million Mexican pesos (~12 million USD) for the Secretaría de Medio Ambiente Estatal de Quintana Roo (SEMA) for the removal of Sargassum from touristic beaches [19]. In 2018, CONACYT addressed the phenomenon from a scientific and technological development perspective. The same year, the congress of the state of Quintana Roo approved the “environmental sanitation tax” which is applied to tourists for hotel occupancy in Cancun. This tax seeks to guarantee beach cleaning and beach conservation financial resources for the municipality [20].
(3) The SEMAR decree: The Secretaría de Marina (SEMAR) has been coordinating Sargassum containment and management efforts by government decree since 2019 [21]. In support of this decree, CONACYT defined a scientific, technological and innovation agenda for the attention, adaptation and mitigation of the massive influxes of Sargassum on the Mexican coasts in 2019 [22]. This Agenda was published as a collaborative effort between various federal and local government institutions, as well as specialists and experts in different disciplines and areas of knowledge (https://conacyt.mx/sargazo/images/Agenda/2020/Agenda_Conacyt_Sargazo-2020_.pdf, accessed on 18 April 2022) [22]. This Agenda defines nine strategic and multidisciplinary lines to address the Sargassum phenomenon in a comprehensive manner at different timescales: (1) origin and ecological importance, (2) monitoring, modeling and early warning, (3) socioeconomic and environmental impacts, (4) containment, harvest and disposal, (5) potential uses, (6) restoration of affected ecosystems, (7) regulations, (8) communication and education and (9) international cooperation.

3.2. Findings on Knowledge Generation

A total of 185 projects, initiatives or studies concerning the pelagic Sargassum in Mexico were generated between 2010 and 2021. We identified nine additional projects with a starting date or results expected after 2021 (Supplementary File S1). Most were review articles (30%) (Figure 2). A considerable number of projects (137) did not reach the peer-review publication stage. The project “Sistema de Información y Análisis Marino Costero (SIMAR)” of the Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO) was the only identified project with databases for free download or public access.
Of all the projects, 68% were developed by the academic sector (Figure 3). Almost 30% of the projects were developed by four academic institutions: CICY, CINVESTAV, ECOSUR and UNAM (Figure 4).
Most projects (41%) were found under the strategic line of potential uses. We identified a total of eight Mexican granted patents, four within this line and four within the containment, harvest and disposal strategic line (Supplementary File S1). The second most common strategic line was that of socioeconomic and environmental impacts, with 18% of the total projects (Figure 5). The less developed strategic lines, with longer temporal scales to achieve outputs, were those concerning the development of regulations and restoration efforts of affected ecosystems. These accounted for only 1% of the identified projects (Figure 5).
Next, we describe the content of each of these strategic lines and provide an overview focusing on what has been accomplished in Mexico and what the current consolidation needs are.

3.2.1. Origin and Ecological Importance

The origin and causes of massive growth of Sargassum in the last decade are still being studied worldwide [11]. Blooms in the open ocean have been associated with changes in wind circulation and ocean currents [23]. Other hypotheses, such as the input of iron- and phosphorous-rich sand dust of the Sahara Desert [24] and the input of nutrients from river discharges [11], are still being tested. The identification and characterization of Sargassum species is also a critical component to understanding the bloom formations [25,26].
This strategic line also entails the importance of Sargassum in macro- and micro-ecological processes. For example, Sargassum is one of the main carbon sinks in the ocean, forming a trophic link between pelagic and benthic habitats [27,28,29]. Sargassum also forms important biological associations with many marine organisms [2,3,4].
Studies in this line were initiated in Mexico in 2010 (Supplementary File S1). Many (37%) of the identified projects regarding the origin of Sargassum atypical influxes are review articles (Supplementary File S1). Most of the studies (52%) are related to the ecological and environmental importance of Sargassum at the coastal scale and the identification and characterization of different morphotypes. Based on the compiled information, summarized by subarea, we described the existing knowledge and what is needed to consolidate this strategic line (Table 2). These studies, projects and initiatives are further described in Supplementary File S3.

3.2.2. Monitoring, Modeling and Early Warning

The use of remote sensors has helped to detect Sargassum rafts in the open ocean [37]. However, Sargassum tracking and quantification still present technical challenges. For example, satellite information is limited by cloudiness, which means that information on the presence and route of Sargassum may be lost for several days. Another limitation is the spatial and temporal resolution provided by satellites. High spatial resolution satellites (e.g., Sentinel-2, Landsat-8, Planet) do not collect data over large areas and their temporal resolution can be low compared to satellites of lower spatial resolution. Low spatial resolution satellites (e.g., MODIS, Sentinel-3) limit the detection of small and isolated Sargassum rafts and are not suitable for detection in coastal areas [38].
Numerical models that can predict when and where Sargassum rafts that are detected in the open ocean may arrive are needed. Current models have not been highly effective in predicting influxes, since Sargassum is not just a floating particle but a living organism that interacts with and responds to a changing and complex environment [39]. In the coastline, nested models at fine resolutions are still required [40].
An effective Sargassum early warning system must be based on robust remote and in situ monitoring that feed highly predictive numerical models to determine the probability of beach strandings. This would allow for a system akin to hurricane forecasting [41], with a major impact on containment, harvesting and other management strategies [37,42].
Mexican efforts in Sargassum detection and the development of a monitoring and an early warning system began in 2014 (Supplementary File S1). The federal government and academic sectors are currently working to solve the technical limitations of both remote sensing and numerical models (Supplementary File S3). There are also important civil society initiatives to produce “Sargassum traffic lights”, a widespread tool to inform tourists about the amount of the macroalgae in touristic beaches (Supplementary File S3). What we know and have accomplished in Mexico in the main subareas of this strategic line, as well as the main requirements in order to consolidate it, are summarized in Table 3. Some of these studies, projects and initiatives are further described in Supplementary File S3.

3.2.3. Socioeconomic and Environmental Impacts

Atypical influxes of Sargassum have ecological, economic and social impacts that need to be described and quantified. These impacts have multisectoral effects at the local, state and national levels [53]. Economic and social activities such as tourism and fishing are affected [54].
Decomposing Sargassum in coastal waters or on beaches release toxic gasses such as methane and hydrogen sulfide [55] that have detrimental effects on human health [56]. In the reef lagoon, decomposing Sargassum produces high loads of organic material leading to eutrophication, where the water contains low levels of oxygen, high concentrations of nutrients, hydrogen sulfide and tannins [57]. Eutrophication of the water and leachates containing arsenic and other heavy metals has an effect on population structure and mortality of marine organisms [12,58]. The Sargassum that is transported and discarded inland contaminates the aquifer and cenotes (sinkholes) with leachates [59].
These impacts have been studied in Mexico since 2010 (Supplementary File S1). Most (61%) of these studies have been focused on ecological effects (e.g., mortality of marine organisms, detrimental effects on coral reefs and seagrasses). Effects on human health, commercial fisheries and beach erosion have been poorly documented. What we know in Mexico in the main subareas of this strategic line, and the main requirements of consolidating it, are summarized in Table 4. Some of these studies, projects and initiatives are further described in Supplementary File S3.

3.2.4. Containment, Harvest and Disposal

Efforts to contain Sargassum at sea before it can reach the beaches are conducted through the installation of barriers. These barriers stop and aggregate Sargassum to be collected by “Sargassum trawlers” or be redirected away from the coast [68]. Incipient Sargassum harvest at sea is conducted by vessels, trawlers or small coastal boats [21]. Some vessels have pre-processing systems such as milling to reduce Sargassum volume [69].
Once the Sargassum strands on the beach, it is collected with wheelbarrows and rakes by hotel staff, municipal brigades or local people [67]. In months of atypical influxes, mechanical machinery is used [69]. Sargassum collected at sea and on land is transported to collection points and then transported to treatment stations or final disposal sites with towing vehicles. The facilities of Sargassum treatment stations must be adequate to prevent leachates from reaching the aquifers [69].
Most management efforts to date in Mexico are focused on Sargassum containment in coastal waters and harvest at beaches [22]. These strategies have been conducted since 2015 (Supplementary File S1). The containment and harvest actions are centralized by the state government through the different municipalities and by the federal government through SEMAR. Furthermore, most of the technological developments and innovations (i.e., barriers, trawlers, pre-processing equipment, beach clean-up equipment, etc.) are conducted by the private sector (Supplementary File S3). The document “Lineamientos Técnicos y de Gestión para la Atención de la Contingencia Ocasionada por Sargazo en el Caribe Mexicano y el Golfo de México”(https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/636709/SEMARNAT-INECC-SARGAZO-2021.pdf accessed on 18 April 2022) [69] describes the characteristics that these developments must meet. What we know and have done in Mexico in the main subareas of this strategic line, and the main things needed to consolidate it, are summarized in Table 5. Some of these studies, projects and initiatives are further described in Supplementary File S3.

3.2.5. Potential Uses

Several uses for pelagic Sargassum have been explored in the last decade [70]. These are based on the biological, physical and chemical characteristics of the macroalgae [71].

Agriculture Industry and Livestock Goods

Composting has been explored for the conservation and enhancement of soil as one of the most economical and practical methods for the exploitation of fresh and dry Sargassum [72]. Sargassum has also been explored as a growth substrate for plants and as an additive to substrates due to its antifungal, antimicrobial and antiviral properties [73]. The use of Sargassum as a biofertilizer has become visible worldwide [70]. Biostimulants and biofertilizers are compounds that stimulate plant growth by providing nutrients, improving soil quality and creating a natural microbial environment [74].

Chemistry, Pharmaceutics and Nutritional Supplements

Macroalgae are an important source of alginates, fucoidans and fucoxanthins [70]. The compounds are used in the food industry as emulsifiers and gelling agents [75]; as food or dietary supplements with antioxidant, anticoagulant, antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antilipidemic, antidiabetic and anticancer properties [76], and in the cosmetics industry as they contain important levels of nutrients and minerals [77,78].

Ecomaterials

Ecomaterials are economically viable products with a minimal ecological footprint that use existing local raw materials combined with existing technologies [79]. Sargassum has been used as a material (i.e., in concrete and bricks) for construction, for textile fiber production (i.e., in footwear), for bioplastics production and for paper manufacturing [70].

Livestock Feed

The suitability of Sargassum use in animal feed supplement is highly questioned due to potential toxic effects of heavy metals [70,80].

Bioenergetics

Sargassum that arrives on beaches or that becomes a residue from other industrial processes has a promising potential use as an energy source (i.e., bioethanol, biogas and biodiesel). It does not require fresh biomass like other processes (e.g., biofertilizers production) [71]. Limitations for this use are the high concentrations of recalcitrant components in Sargassum, such as sulfates, sodium chloride and heavy metals, which can act as inhibitors of anaerobic digestion, a process necessary for bioenergy production [81]; additionally, the amount of lignin found in Sargassum cell walls acts as a barrier to the microorganisms needed in the biofuel conversion process [82]. Other isolated efforts to produce bioenergy from Sargassum used direct pyrolysis of waste biomass. However, the high content of Sargassum ash leads to a low gross calorific value, resulting in a lower energy yield than that given by land-based plant biomass [83] and a large atmospheric impact with the release of several pollutants [84].

Advanced Materials

Sargassum can be used to obtain biocarbon and nanocarbon for the generation of electrocatalysts and specialized goods for high-tech industries. It has also shown great potential for the green synthesis of metal nanoparticles with multiple applications [85,86,87].

Bioremediation and Purification Mechanisms

The use of Sargassum in the production of activated carbon for biofilters that remove pollutants (dyes, ions, heavy metals, nitrogen, phosphorus, phenols, chlorine, etc.) from air, land, gas and water [88] has been explored.
The potential uses of Sargassum have been explored in Mexico since 2014 (Supplementary File S1). Most of these initiatives (76%) are focused on the development of biostimulants and biofertilizers, extraction of fucoidans and alginates, development of materials for bioconstruction and the generation of energy. Within this strategic line, we also determined a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) for applicable projects through interviews with subject matter experts. There are nine levels of TRLs, ranging from the basic principles of creating a new technology (TRL = 1) to the successful testing in a real-world environment and subsequent commercial availability (TRL = 9) [89,90,91]. (Figure 6). The TRLs of the projects were averaged to determine the TRL of each major product as presented in Figure 6. In Mexico, the industries with the most immediate potential, based on the highest TRL, are the biostimulants and biofertilizers, fucoidan and alginates, textile materials, bioconstruction materials and paper production. What we know and have done in Mexico in the main subareas of this strategic line, and the main needs to consolidate it, are summarized in Table 6. Some of these studies, projects and initiatives are further described in Supplementary File S3.

3.2.6. Regulations and Other Strategic Lines

The strategic line referring to the legal framework and regulations for all activities associated with Sargassum management is crucial to establishing consolidated industries around the use of the macroalgae and reducing socioecological risks associated with macroalgae decomposition at shallow coastal waters and on the beaches. However, this strategic line has very limited information and coordinated technical efforts for its consolidation.
The development of communication and education strategies on the Sargassum phenomenon is necessary in order to move from a problem perspective to a resource perspective and to promote a culture of care for the oceans. The Sargassum phenomenon affects several nations in the Western tropical Atlantic and the Caribbean region. Thus, it is necessary not only to have a comprehensive national strategy to address this phenomenon, but also a multilateral strategy that brings together the solution-oriented knowledge and experiences of different countries and sectors [22].
Finally, as described above, the extent of the direct and indirect environmental impacts of atypical Sargassum influxes is not known at this time. Thus, restoration efforts in affected areas are incipient or nonexistent. Moreover, there is no adequate coastal regionalization that would allow differentiated, zoned Sargassum management plans (e.g., marine protected areas, uninhabited areas, fishing areas) [22].
In Mexico, these strategic lines have been addressed, with limited tangible results, since 2019 (Supplementary File S1). In terms of regulations and legal instruments, most of the initiatives are ongoing efforts by different governmental entities (Supplementary File S3). Further actions are needed in all population sectors to consolidate these lines. What we know and have done in Mexico in terms of the main subareas of these strategic lines and the main requirement of consolidating them are summarized in Table 7. Some of these studies, projects and initiatives are further described in Supplementary File S3.
Regarding the geographic representativeness, 72% of the projects, studies or initiatives provided analyses at the state or regional level (Caribbean), and only 28% indicated site-specific analyses. For the latter, most of the sampling sites are in the northern region of the state of Quintana Roo, between Playa del Carmen and Cancun (Figure 7). In terms of timing, 87% of the projects or studies have been developed since 2018, with a peak in 2019, one year after the most impactful influx of Sargassum ever registered.

3.3. Findings on Key Experts and Multisectoral and Interinstitutional Collaboration

We identified a total of 261 experts in the topic of pelagic Sargassum in Mexico (Supplementary File S2). Of these, 177 were assigned to a specific strategic line. The others were assigned to an additional classification called “comprehensive attention” due to their inherent multidisciplinary work; most of them were from the government sector. Most experts work within the strategic lines of potential uses, socioeconomic and environmental impacts and monitoring. Most of them work in the academic sector, followed by the private sector. The smallest number of experts was associated with the lines of regulations and restoration of affected ecosystems (Figure 8).
The four institutions with the highest number of experts are UNAM, SEMARNAT, CICY and CINVESTAV, with an average of fourteen experts per institution (Figure 9). In terms of geographical representation, the largest number of experts were located in Quintana Roo (89), followed by Mexico City (85) and Yucatan (35), while the rest were dispersed in seventeen other states of Mexico.
At least one national or international collaboration was identified in 87 of the projects. The average number of collaborations was three within each project. From these, 76% were national academic, private, civil or governmental collaborations, while 24% were international academic and private collaborations (Supplementary File S1). The academic institutions with more established collaborations were UNAM and CINVESTAV, while the government agencies that collaborated the most were CONACYT, SEMAR and CONABIO (Supplementary File S1).

4. Discussion

Sargassum overgrowth and atypical influxes in the western tropical Atlantic and Caribbean coasts poses a challenge for the ecosystem (marine and terrestrial), the economy, the society, and the politics of affected countries [106]. Public and private initiatives in all sectors have evolved to understand, address and provide solutions to this complex problem. These initiatives in Mexico are numerous and valuable, as described here. However, several issues preclude effective advancements in reaching an integral management of the macroalgae.
We found limited peer-reviewed research publications and open-access databases compared with the number of conducted projects. The latter is critical because it prevents repetition of research efforts over time [107]. Most projects that did not develop publications had an estimated duration of less than two years (Supplementary File S1). Funding duration may not be optimal and multiple-year projects should be prioritized, and especially so along strategic lines that require longer periods to obtain results with meaningful implications in decision-making processes (e.g., monitoring, restoration) [108].
Another important issue is that the research funding seems to respond to atypical influxes events, without continuity or long-term planning (Supplementary File S1). This makes it difficult to understand the cause of the phenomenon, generate adequate predictions or consolidate industries around the resource, especially since efforts continue to focus mainly on mitigation (containment and cleanup) [22] and not on generating a foundation for a robust monitoring and early warning system.
We also found a cluster of research and experts in a few institutions. We think it is important to push more institutions towards innovative excellence across all aspects of this complex topic, without compromising the expertise already achieved. National cooperation between different institutions should be a criterion for future call for proposals and funding [22]. Projects in co-design, co-development and co-delivery are needed, expanding and strengthening existing channels of multisectoral collaboration.
The geographical representation of initiatives and projects addressing the Sargassum phenomenon across the Mexican coasts is imbalanced. The attention of academic and other sectors has focused primarily on areas of touristic importance, neglecting rural areas, protected natural areas, fishing zones, etc., where atypical Sargassum influxes and their impacts have not been assessed and hence not understood nor quantified [22]. This imbalance needs to be addressed by prioritizing initiatives and research that involve local communities and study sites outside highly developed areas [109]. This will be more feasible when infrastructure in the field allows researchers to reach these sometimes isolated, difficult to reach locations [52].
There is a disparity of efforts between the different strategic lines, which hampers a comprehensive understanding and management of the phenomenon [22]. This disparity responds to the temporal and spatial scales required to generate the knowledge, and should be reduced by emphasizing efforts on those lines with more gaps. Development of capacities and experts within these lines are also required. Communication strategies, international cooperation and paths towards a legal regulatory framework establishing an adequate Sargassum management and use are all issues that should be promoted and improved by the governmental sector [80].
Within all strategic lines, there exist significant obstacles to advancing their consolidation. There are logistical and financial limitations, especially to conducting research in the open ocean [110]. For example, in the line of origin and ecological importance, the limited research on the origin of the phenomenon or the role of Sargassum rafts as an essential habitat may be related to limited financial resources to conduct research cruises. Another limitation is the inherent long project extension within some strategic lines. For example, in the line of monitoring, data availability, model validation, technology development, etc., require multi-year research funding to achieve a level where the resulting tools can have practical applications. Finally, there is a lack of a comprehensive regulatory framework in Mexico, hindering advancements towards the establishment of value chains (Ministry of Foreign Affairs [111]) and a Sargassum-based circular economy. The SEMARNAT guidelines are a first step to fixing regulation voids; however, these are not compulsory.
This state of the art addresses the advances and needs of each of the strategic lines and provides a road map for future research and actions. By having a clear picture of the existing knowledge, it is possible to coordinate more effectively the interinstitutional, multisectoral and multidisciplinary efforts. Based on the identified needs, we determined ten major challenges that need to be addressed at different temporal scales and with different complexity levels (i.e., where major needs and limitations are and where the resources to overcome those needs and limitations are higher) to achieve measurable impacts on the integrated Sargassum management, with national level implications (Figure 10).
To overcome these challenges, it is crucial to change the perspective that Sargassum is a waste and that it should be managed as such. Instead, we should embrace Sargassum as a national resource. Sargassum is not only a golden pelagic forest of great ecological and environmental value (e.g., CO2 sequestration capacity) [2,28,29], but it also has an undeniable economic potential for society [80]. Atypical Sargassum influxes will continue to occur [12], so it is necessary to establish a mechanism that facilitate biomass harvest at sea with a robust early warning system that will allow timely actions. The negative impacts of Sargassum on coasts and beaches will be minimized once it is properly valued as is any other fishery resource. To achieve this status, it is necessary to diminish existing knowledge gaps by means of research and tangible coordinated actions.
The Sargassum topic is complex and extends beyond a single country’s problem. One of the main goals of this research was to facilitate the transfer of knowledge of successful Sargassum actions conducted by different Mexican sectors and stakeholders. Some of these actions can be scaled up regionally and promote the development of joint regional solutions to understand the long-term multifactorial effects on ocean and human health of the massive Sargassum standings at a regional scale [112]. Without appropriate management, beached Sargassum will keep resulting in ecological, environmental and public health problems including the high costs of biodiversity and ecosystem resilience loss.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/phycology2030014/s1. References [113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121] are cited in the supplementary materials.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.R.-D., E.C.-P. and F.C.-T.; Data curation, J.R.-D.; Formal analysis, J.R.-D.; Funding acquisition, J.R.-D.; Investigation, J.R.-D.; Methodology, J.R.-D.; Project administration, J.R.-D.; Resources, J.R.-D., E.E.-B., J.G.-C. and L.M.-N.; Software, J.R.-D.; Supervision, J.R.-D. and E.E.-B.; Validation, J.R.-D.; Visualization, J.R.-D.; Writing–original draft, J.R.-D., E.C.-P., E.E.-B., J.G.-C. and L.M.-N.; Writing–review and editing, J.R.-D., E.C.-P., E.E.-B., J.G.-C., L.M.-N. and F.C.-T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was possible through a National postdoctoral fellowship at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Technología (CONACYT) under the program “Estancias posdoctorales por México, modalidad II.”

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We want to thank all the three levels of the Federal Government of Mexico that collaborated in various stages of information consultation and collaboration to develop this paper. Among them we can mention CONABIO, Instituto Nacional de Pesca (INAPESCA), SEMARNAT, SEMAR and the INECC, along with several Quintana Roo government and municipal entities including SEMA and the Consejo Quintanarroense de ciencia y tecnología (COQCYT). We also thank all the academic institutions, researchers and stakeholders involved in various meetings, interviews and seminars that supplied valuable information described in this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Gower, J.; King, S. Seaweed, seaweed everywhere. Science 2019, 365, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Pendleton, L.; Krowicki, F.; Strosser, P.; Hallett-Murdoch, J. Assessing the Economic Contribution of Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services in the Sargasso Sea; Report 14-05; Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions: Durham, NC, USA, 2014; 47p. [Google Scholar]
  3. Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E.; van Tussenbroek, B.; Jordán-Dahlgren, E. Afluencia masiva de sargazo pelágico a la costa del Caribe Mexicano (2014–2015). In Florecimientos Algales Nocivos en México; CICESE: Ensenada, Mexico, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  4. Martínez-González, G. Sargazo: La irrupción atípica de un ecosistema milenario. Salud Pública México 2019, 61, 698–700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Laffoley, D.D.A.; Roe, H.S.; Angel, M.V.; Ardron, J.; Bates, N.R.; Boyd, I.L.; Brooke, S.; Buck, K.N.; Carlson, C.A.; Causey, B.; et al. The Protection and Management of the Sargasso Sea: The Golden Floating Rainforest of the Atlantic Ocean. Summary Science and Supporting Evidence Case; Sargasso Sea Alliance: Washington DC, USA, 2011; 44p. [Google Scholar]
  6. Convention on Biological Diversity. Report of the Wider Caribbean and Western Mid-Atlantic Regional Workshop to Facilitate the Description of Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas; UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/7; CBD: Montreal, QC, Canada, 2012; 241p. [Google Scholar]
  7. Hamilton Declaration. Hamilton Declaration on Collaboration for the Conservation of the Sargasso; Sargasso Sea Commission: Hamilton, Bermudas, 2014; 12p. [Google Scholar]
  8. Gower, J.; Young, E.; King, S. Satellite images suggest a new Sargassum source region in 2011. Remote Sens. Lett. 2013, 4, 764–773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Sankare, Y.; Komoe, K.; Aka, K.-S.; Fofie, N.B.-Y.; Bamba, A. Répartition et abondance des sargasses Sargassum natans et Sargassum fluitans (Sargassaceae, Fucales) dans les eaux marines ivoiriennes (Afrique de l’Ouest). Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 2016, 10, 1853–1864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Stoner, A.W. Pelagic Sargassum: Evidence for a major decrease in biomass. Deep Sea Res. Part A Oceanogr. Res. Pap. 1983, 30, 469–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Wang, M.; Hu, C.; Barnes, B.B.; Mitchum, G.; Lapointe, B.; Montoya, J.P. The great Atlantic Sargassum belt. Science 2019, 365, 83–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Van Tussenbroek, B.I.; Arana, H.A.H.; Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E.; Espinoza-Avalos, J.; Canizales-Flores, H.M.; González-Godoy, C.E.; Barba-Santos, M.G.; Vega-Zepeda, A.; Collado-Vides, L. Severe impacts of brown tides caused by Sargassum spp. on near-shore Caribbean seagrass communities. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2017, 122, 272–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E.; Medina-Valmaseda, A.E.; Blanchon, P.; Monroy-Velázquez, L.V.; Almazán-Becerril, A.; Delgado-Pech, B.; Vásquez-Yeomans, L.; Francisco, V.; García-Rivas, M.C. Faunal mortality associated with massive beaching and decomposition of pelagic Sargassum. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2019, 146, 201–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Casas-Beltrán, D.A.; Gallaher, C.M.; Hernández-Yac, E.; Febles-Moreno, K.; Voglesonger, K.; Leal-Bautista, R.M.; Lenczewski, M. Seaweed invasion! Temporal changes in beach conditions lead to increasing cenote usage and contamination in the Riviera Maya. Sustainability 2020, 12, 2474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. Sosa-Olivier, J.A.; Canepa, J.R.; Zarate, D.G.; Díaz, A.G.; Jaramillo, D.A.; García, H.K.; López, B.E. Bioenergetic valorization of Sargassum fluitans in the Mexican Caribbean: The determination of the calorific value and washing mechanism. AIMS Energy 2022, 10, 45–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. González-Cano, J. Plausible scenarios of sargassum (Sargassum spp.) population base on satellite-detection and beaching indices. In Proceedings of the International Sargassum Conference, Guadeloupe Island, France, 23–26 October 2019. [Google Scholar]
  17. Estrada-Villalba, É.E.; Azocar, A.L.S.M.; Jacques-García, F.A. State of the art on immersive virtual reality and its use in developing meaningful empathy. Comput. Electr. Eng. 2021, 93, 107272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Londoño-Palacio, O.L.; Maldonado-Granados, L.F.; Calderón-Villafáñez, L.C. Guías para construir estados del arte. Int. Corp. Netw. Knowl. 2014, 5, 39. [Google Scholar]
  19. Gobierno del Estado de Quintana Roo. El Gobierno de Quintana Roo invertirá otros 240 Millones de Pesos para la Estrategia de Atención del Sargazo. 2018. Available online: https://qroo.gob.mx/sargazo/el-gobierno-de-quintana-roo-invertira-otros-240-millones-de-pesos-para-estrategia-de (accessed on 16 February 2022).
  20. La Jornada. Aplicarán Impuesto de Saneamiento Ambiental a los Hoteles de Cancún. 2018. Available online: https://www.jornada.com.mx/2018/12/06/estados/030n2est (accessed on 21 January 2022).
  21. SEMAR. La Secretaría de Marina-Armada de México Mantiene Acciones para la Contención del Fenómeno Atípico del Sargazo en el Estado de Quintana Roo. 2021. Available online: https://www.gob.mx/semar/prensa/la-secretaria-de-marina-armada-de-mexico-mantiene-acciones-para-la-contencion-del-fenomeno-atipico-del-sargazo-en-el-estado-de-quintana-roo (accessed on 10 October 2021).
  22. CONACYT. Agenda de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación para la Atención, Adaptación y Mitigación del arribo de sargazo pelágico a México; Mexican Government Document; CONACYT: Mexico City, Mexico, 2019; 32p.
  23. Johns, E.M.; Lumpkin, R.; Putman, N.F.; Smith, R.H.; Muller-Karger, F.E.; Rueda-Roa, D.T.; Hu, C.; Wang, M.; Brooks, M.T.; Gramer, L.J.; et al. The establishment of a pelagic Sargassum population in the tropical Atlantic: Biological consequences of a basin-scale long distance dispersal event. Prog. Oceanogr. 2020, 182, 102269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Torralba, M.G.; Franks, J.S.; Gomez, A.; Yooseph, S.; Nelson, K.E.; Grimes, D.J. Effect of macondo prospect 252 oil on microbiota associated with pelagic Sargassum in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Microbiol. Ecol. 2017, 73, 91–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. González-Nieto, D.; Oliveira, M.C.; Resendiz, M.L.N.; Dreckmann, K.M.; Mateo-Cid, L.E.; Senties, A. Molecular assessment of the genus Sargassum (Fucales, Phaeophyceae) from the Mexican coasts of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, with the description of S. xochitlae sp. Phytotaxa 2020, 461, 254–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Vázquez-Delfín, E.; Freile-Pelegrín, Y.; Salazar-Garibay, A.; Serviere-Zaragoza, E.; Méndez-Rodríguez, L.C.; Robledo, D. Species composition and chemical characterization of Sargassum influx at six different locations along the Mexican Caribbean coast. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 795, 148852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Baker, P.; Minzlaff, U.; Schoenle, A.; Schwabe, E.; Hohlfeld, M.; Jeuck, A.; Brenke, N.; Prausse, D.; Rothenbeck, M.; Brix, S.; et al. Potential contribution of surface-dwelling Sargassum algae to deep-sea ecosystems in the southern North Atlantic. Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 2018, 148, 21–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  28. Gouvêa, L.P.; Assis, J.; Gurgel, C.F.; Serrão, E.A.; Silveira, T.C.; Santos, R.; Duarte, C.M.; Peres, L.M.; Carvalho, V.F.; Batista, M.; et al. Golden carbon of Sargassum forests revealed as an opportunity for climate change mitigation. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 729, 138745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Powers, L.C.; Hertkorn, N.; McDonald, N.; Schmitt-Kopplin, P.; Del Vecchio, R.; Blough, N.V.; Gonsior, M. Sargassum sp. act as a large regional source of marine dissolved organic carbon and polyphenols. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 2019, 33, 1423–1439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Carrillo, L.; Sheinbaum-Pardo, J. Sargazo en Movimiento. In Revista de la Academia Mexicana de Ciencias; Aldana-Aranda, D., Ed.; México ante el sargazo. 2020, Volume 71, pp. 20–28. Available online: https://www.revistaciencia.amc.edu.mx/images/revista/71_4/PDF/06_71_4_1287_SargazoFMovimiento.pdf (accessed on 30 May 2022).
  31. Jouanno, J.; Moquet, J.S.; Berline, L.; Radenac, M.H.; Santini, W.; Changeux, T.; Thibaut, T.; Podlejski, W.; Ménard, F.; Martinez, J.M.; et al. Evolution of the riverine nutrient export to the Tropical Atlantic over the last 15 years: Is there a link with Sargassum proliferation? Environ. Res. Lett. 2021, 16, 034042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. García-Sánchez, M.; Graham, C.; Vera, E.; Escalante-Mancera, E.; Álvarez-Filip, L.; van Tussenbroek, B.I. Temporal changes in the composition and biomass of beached pelagic Sargassum species in the Mexican Caribbean. Aquat. Bot. 2020, 167, 103275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Paraguay-Delgado, F.; Carreño-Gallardo, C.; Estrada-Guel, I.; Zabala-Arceo, A.; Martinez-Rodriguez, H.A.; Lardizábal-Gutierrez, D. Pelagic Sargassum spp. capture CO2 and produce calcite. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020, 27, 25794–25800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Salter, M.A.; Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E.; Álvarez-Filip, L.; Jordán-Dahlgren, E.; Perry, C.T. Pelagic Sargassum as an emerging vector of high-rate carbonate sediment import to tropical Atlantic coastlines. Glob. Planet. Change 2019, 195, 103332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Mendoza-Becerril, M.A.; Serviere-Zaragoza, E.; Mazariegos-Villarreal, A.; Rivera-Perez, C.; Calder, D.R.; Vázquez-Delfín, E.F.; Freile-Pelegrín, Y.; Agüero, J.; Robledo, D. Epibiont hydroids on beachcast Sargassum in the Mexican Caribbean. PeerJ 2020, 8, e9795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Monroy-Velázquez, L.V.; Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E.; van Tussenbroek, B.I.; Aguiar, T.; Solis-Weiss, V.; Briones-Fourzán, P. Motile macrofauna associated with pelagic Sargassum in a Mexican reef lagoon. J. Environ. Manag. 2019, 252, 109650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Hu, C.; Feng, L.; Hardy, R.F.; Hochberg, E.J. Spectral and spatial requirements of remote measurements of pelagic Sargassum macroalgae. Remote Sens. Environ. 2015, 167, 229–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Duffy, J.E.; Benedetti-Cecchi, L.; Trinanes, J.; Muller-Karger, F.E.; Ambo-Rappe, R.; Boström, C.; Buschmann, A.H.; Byrnes, J.; Coles, R.G.; Creed, J.; et al. Toward a coordinated global observing system for seagrasses and marine macroalgae. Front. Mar. Sci. 2019, 6, 317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Sheinbaum-Pardo, J. Sargazo en Movimiento: Retos y Perspectivas para su Modelación. Seminario-Taller Online Nacional Sobre Teledetección, Monitoreo, Pronóstico y Alerta Temprana del Sargazo Pelágico que Arriba a las Costas Mexicanas: Descubriendo Sinergias y Construyendo Puentes Hacia un Sistema Integral y Regional; CONACYT: Mexico City, Mexico, 2021.
  40. Qi, J.; Chen, C.; Beardsley, R.C. FVCOM one-way and two-way nesting using ESMF: Development and validation. Ocean Model. 2018, 124, 94–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Uribe-Martínez, A.; Guzmán-Ramírez, A.; Arreguín-Sánchez, F.; Cuevas, E. El sargazo en el Caribe Mexicano, revisión de una historia impensable. In Gobernanza y Manejo de las Costas y Mares ante la Incertidumbre. Una Guía para Tomadores de Decisiones; Rivera-Arriaga, E., Azuz-Adeath, I.O., Cervantes Rosas, D., Espinoza-Tenorio, A., Silva Casarín, R., Ortega-Rubio, A., Botello, A.V., y Vega-Serratos, B.E., Eds.; Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Ricomar: Campeche, Mexico, 2020; 894p. [Google Scholar]
  42. Gower, J.; King, S. The distribution of pelagic Sargassum observed with OLCI. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2020, 41, 5669–5679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Arellano-Verdejo, J.; Lazcano-Hernández, H.E.; Cabanillas-Terán, N. ERISNet: Deep neural network for Sargassum detection along the coastline of the Mexican Caribbean. PeerJ Comput. Sci. 2019, 7, e6842. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  44. Cuevas, E.; Uribe-Martínez, A.; Liceaga-Correa, M.A. A satellite remote-sensing multi-index approach to discriminate pelagic Sargassum in the waters of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2018, 39, 3608–3627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Gómez-Rodríguez, G. Monitoreo del sargazo en el Laboratorio Nacional de Observación de la Tierra. Seminario-Taller Online Nacional Sobre Teledetección, Monitoreo, Pronóstico y Alerta Temprana del Sargazo Pelágico que Arriba a las Costas Mexicanas: Descubriendo Sinergias y Construyendo Puentes Hacia un Sistema Integral y Regional; CONACYT: Mexico City, Mexico, 2021.
  46. Allende-Arandía, M.E.; Caracterización Lagrangiana de la ruta del Sargazo Mediante una Comparación Climatológica de las Estructuras Coherentes Lagrangianas y los Mapas Auto-Organizados. Seminario Online Interinstitucional de Oceanografía Física de la RIOF. June 2021. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ZnAR7byltM (accessed on 21 July 2021).
  47. Lara-Hernández, J.; Zavala-Hidalgo, J. Dinámica de Transporte de Sargazo Pelágico en las Cercanías del Caribe Mexicano: Análisis de Sensibilidad. Seminario-Taller Online Nacional Sobre Teledetección, Monitoreo, Pronóstico y Alerta Temprana del Sargazo Pelágico que Arriba a las Costas Mexicanas: Descubriendo Sinergias y Construyendo Puentes Hacia un Sistema Integral y Regional; CONACYT: Mexico City, Mexico, 2021.
  48. Jouanno, J.; Benshila, R.; Berline, L.; Soulié, A.; Radenac, M.H.; Morvan, G.; Diaz, F.; Sheinbaum, J.; Chevalier, C.; Thibaut, T.; et al. A NEMO-based model of Sargassum distribution in the Tropical Atlantic: Description of the model and sensitivity analysis (NEMO-Sarg1. 0). Geosci. Model Dev. 2021, 14, 4069–4086. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Flores-Vidal, X. Sistema de Monitoreo en Tiempo-Real de Corrientes Marinas y Presencia de Sargazo en el Caribe Mexicano. Seminario-Taller Online Nacional Sobre Teledetección, Monitoreo, Pronóstico y Alerta Temprana del Sargazo Pelágico que Arriba a las Costas Mexicanas: Descubriendo Sinergias y Construyendo Puentes Hacia un Sistema Integral y Regional; CONACYT: Mexico City, Mexico, 2021.
  50. González-Cano, J. Arreguín-Sánchez. Pronóstico de la Biomasa de Sargazo en el año 2021 en una Porción de la zona del Atlántico Centro Occidental. Manuscript in preparation. 2021.
  51. Arellano-Verdejo, J.; Lazcano-Hernández, H.E. Crowdsourcing for Sargassum Monitoring Along the Beaches in Quintana Roo. In Proceedings of the GIS LATAM Conference, Mexico City, Mexico, 28–30 September 2020; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 49–62. [Google Scholar]
  52. Arellano-Verdejo, J.; Lazcano-Hernández, H.E. Collective view: Mapping Sargassum distribution along beaches. PeerJ Comput. Sci. 2021, 7, e528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Espinosa, A.L.; Li-Ng, J.J. El riesgo del sargazo para la economía y turismo de Quintana Roo y México. BBVA Res. 2020, 20, 34. [Google Scholar]
  54. Ramlogan, N.R.; McConney, P.; Oxenford, H.A. Socio-Economic Impacts of Sargassum Influx Events on the Fishery Sector of Barbados; Technical Report No 81; Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies (CERMES): The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus: Wanstead, Barbados, 2017; 86p. [Google Scholar]
  55. Resiere, D.; Mehdaoui, H.; Florentin, J.; Gueye, P.; Lebrun, T.; Blateau, A.; Viguier, J.; Valentino, R.; Brouste, Y.; Kallel, H.; et al. Sargassum seaweed health menace in the Caribbean: Clinical characteristics of a population exposed to hydrogen sulfide during the 2018 massive stranding. Clin. Toxicol. 2021, 59, 215–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Michotey, V.; Blanfuné, A.; Chevalier, C.; Garel, M.; Diaz, F.; Berline, L.; Le Grand, L.; Armougom, F.; Guasco, S.; Ruitton, S.; et al. In situ observations and modelling revealed environmental factors favoring occurrence of Vibrio in microbiome of the pelagic Sargassum responsible for strandings. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 748, 141216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E.; van Tussenbroek, B. El sargazo en los pastos marinos y arrecifes. Rev. Acad. Mex. Cienc. 2020, 71, 28–33. [Google Scholar]
  58. Aguirre-Muñoz, A. El Sargazo en el Caribe Mexicano: De la Negación y el Voluntarismo a la Realidad. 2019. Available online: http://marfund.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Aguirre-Munoz-2019-El-sargazo-en-el-Car-ibe-Negaci%C3%B3n-voluntarismo-y-realidad-1.pdf (accessed on 24 October 2021).
  59. Hernández-Terrones, L.M. Impacto del sargazo en el acuífero. Rev. Acad. Mex. Cienc. 2020, 71, 42–45. [Google Scholar]
  60. Cuevas-Zimbrón, E. Pesquería de la raya pinta Aetobatus narinari en el Sureste del Golfo de México: Tasas de Captura y Estructura Poblacional. Master’s Thesis, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Campeche, Mexico, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  61. Saldaña Fabela, P.; Izurieta Dávila, J.; Gómez Balandra, A.; Martínez Jiménez, M.; Bravo Inclán, L.; Vázquez Bustos, C.; Huerto Delgadillo, R. Diagnóstico de Calidad del Agua y Caracterización de las dos Especies de Sargazo que Arriban a las Costas de Cancún, Puerto Morelos y Playa del Carmen; IMTA-SEMARNAT: Jiutepec, Morelos, Mexico, 2019; 64p. [Google Scholar]
  62. Islas-Madrid, N.L. Indicadores de Estrés Oxidativo de la Población de Tortuga Blanca (Chelonia mydas) que Habita en el Caribe Mexicano. Master’s Thesis, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste SC, Baja California Sur, La Paz, Mexico, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  63. Rodríguez-Soto, K.F. Efecto de la Acumulación de Sargazo en Anidación, Eclosión y Sobrevivencia de Tortugas Marinas de Quintana Roo. Bachelor’s Thesis, Universidad de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  64. Álvarez-Filip, L.; Estrada-Saldívar, N.; Pérez-Cervantes, E.; Molina-Hernández, A.; González-Barrios, F.J. A rapid spread of the stony coral tissue loss disease outbreak in the Mexican Caribbean. PeerJ 2019, 7, e8069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  65. Cabanillas-Terán, N.; Hernández-Arana, H.A.; Ruiz-Zárate, M.Á.; Vega-Zepeda, A.; Sánchez-González, A. Sargassum blooms in the Caribbean alter the trophic structure of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum. PeerJ 2019, 7, e7589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  66. Pérez-Posada, I.; Cabanillas-Terán, N.; Martínez-Juárez, L.F.; Yanez-Montalvo, A.F. El Sargazo Pelágico Modifica los Grupos Morfofuncionales Algales de las Comunidades Bentónicas del sur de Quintana Roo; X Congreso Mexicano de Arrecifes coralinos: Manzanillo, Colima, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  67. Murillo-García, M. Proyecto de Recolección de Sargazo en las Costas del Caribe Mexicano. Diseño y Evaluación. Master’s Thesis, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  68. Torres-Beristain, B. El sargazo en las costas mexicanas. Cienc. Hombre 2019, 32, 4–5. [Google Scholar]
  69. SEMARNAT. Lineamientos Técnicos y de Gestión para la Atención de la Contingencia Ocasionada por Sargazo en el Caribe Mexicano y el Golfo de México; Mexican Government: Mexico City, Mexico, 2021; 50p.
  70. Desrochers, A.; Cox, S.-A.; Oxenford, H.A.; van Tussenbroek, B. Sargassum Uses Guide: A resource for Caribbean Researchers, Entrepreneurs, and Policy Makers; Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies (CERMES), University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus: Bridgetown, Barbados, 2020; 159p. [Google Scholar]
  71. Milledge, J.J.; Harvey, P.J. Golden tides: Problem or golden opportunity? The valorization of Sargassum from beach inundations. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2016, 4, 60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Sembera, J.A.; Meier, E.J.; Waliczek, T.M. Composting as an alternative management strategy for Sargassum drifts on coastlines. HortTechnology 2018, 28, 80–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Pérez, M.J.; Falqué, E.; Domínguez, H. Antimicrobial action of compounds from marine seaweed. Mar. Drugs 2016, 14, 52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  74. FAO. Term Portal. Organic Agriculture. 2018. Available online: http://www.fao.org/faoterm (accessed on 16 October 2021).
  75. Avendaño-Romero, G.; López-Malo, A.; Paolu, E. Propiedades del alginato y aplicaciones en alimentos. Temas Sel. Ing. Aliment. 2013, 7, 87–96. [Google Scholar]
  76. Yang, J.Y.; Lim, S.Y. Fucoidans and Bowel Health. Mar. Drugs 2021, 19, 436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Araiza-Macías, M.J.; Balandrano-Fernández, A.L.; Hernández-Contreras, J.P. Alga Sargazo Como Posible Fuente de Materias Primas para la Extracción de Carotenoides; Memorias Del XXI Concurso Lasallista de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación CLIDi, Universidad La Salle: Mexico City, Mexico, 2019; 4p. [Google Scholar]
  78. Jesumani, V.; Du, H.; Aslam, M.; Pei, P.; Huang, N. Potential use of seaweed bioactive compounds in skincare—A review. Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, 688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  79. Ecosur. Ecomateriales. 1991. Available online: https://www.ecosur.org/index.php/es/ecomateriales-2 (accessed on 18 October 2021).
  80. Oxenford, H.A.; Cox, S.A.; van Tussenbroek, B.I.; Desrochers, A. Challenges of turning the Sargassum crisis into gold: Current constraints and implications for the Caribbean. Phycology 2021, 1, 27–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. López-Aguilar, H.; Kennedy-Puentes, G.; Gómez, J.; Huerta-Reynoso, E.; Peralta-Pérez, M.D.R.; Zavala-Díaz de la Serna, F.; Pérez-Hernández, A. Practical and Theoretical Modeling of Anaerobic Digestion of Sargassum spp. in the Mexican Caribbean. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2021, 30, 3151–3161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Tapia-Tussell, R.; Avila-Arias, J.; Domínguez Maldonado, J.; Valero, D.; Olguin-Maciel, E.; Pérez-Brito, D.; Alzate-Gaviria, L. Biological pretreatment of Mexican Caribbean macroalgae consortiums using Bm-2 strain (Trametes hirsuta) and its enzymatic broth to improve biomethane potential. Energies 2018, 11, 494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  83. Milledge, J.J.; Smith, B.; Dyer, P.W.; Harvey, P. Macro-algae-derived biofuel: A review of methods of energy extraction from seaweed biomass. Energies 2014, 7, 7194–7222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Zhao, B.; Su, Y.; Liu, D.; Zhang, H.; Liu, W.; Cui, G. SO2/NOx emissions and ash formation from algae biomass combustion: Process characteristics and mechanisms. Energy 2016, 113, 821–830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Escobar, B.; Pérez-Salcedo, K.Y.; Alonso-Lemus, I.L.; Pacheco, D.; Barbosa, R. N-doped porous carbon from Sargassum spp. as metal-free electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline media. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2017, 42, 30274–30283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Pérez-Salcedo, K.Y.; Shi, X.; Kannan, A.M.; Barbosa, R.; Quintana, P.; Escobar, B. N-Doped porous carbon from Sargassum spp. as efficient metal-free electrocatalysts for O2 reduction in alkaline fuel cells. Energies 2019, 12, 346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  87. Rosas-Medellín, D.; Pérez-Salcedo, K.Y.; Morales-Acosta, D.; Rodríguez-Varela, F.J.; Escobar, B. Green synthesis of Pt nanoparticles and their application in the oxygen reduction reaction. J. Mater. Res. 2021, 36, 4131–4140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Saldarriaga-Hernández, S.; Hernández-Vargas, G.; Iqbal, H.M.; Barcelo, D.; Parra-Saldívar, R. Bioremediation potential of Sargassum sp. biomass to tackle pollution in coastal ecosystems: Circular economy approach. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 715, 136978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. CONACYT, 2021. Pentahélice y la Innovación Abierta. Available online: https://conacyt.mx/conacyt/areas-del-conacyt/desarrollo-tecnologico-e-innovacion/programa-estrategico-nacional-de-tecnologia-e-innovacion-abierta-penta (accessed on 17 December 2021).
  90. De Aldecoa Quintana, J.M. Niveles de madurez tecnológica: Technology readiness levels: TRLS: Una introducción. Econ. Ind. 2014, 393, 165–171. [Google Scholar]
  91. HORIZON. 2020. Work Programme 2014–2015 General Annexes. Development of Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Metrics and Risk Measures. U.S. Department of Energy Technology Readiness Assessment Guide. U.S. Department of Energy Technology Readiness Levels Handbook for Space Applications. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2014_2015/annexes/h2020-wp1415-annex-ga_en.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2022).
  92. Gayosso-Rodríguez, S.; Borges-Gómez, L.; Villanueva-Couoh, E.; Estrada-Botello, M.A.; Garruña, R. Caracterización física y química de materiales orgánicos para sustratos agrícolas. Agrociencia 2018, 52, 639–652. [Google Scholar]
  93. Martínez-Carrera, D.; Larqué-Saavedra, A.; Vieyra, M.R.; Morales, P.; Castillo, I.; Bonilla, M.; Martínez, H. Los Hongos Comestibles, Funcionales y Medicinales: Alternativa Biotecnológica ante la Problemática Social, Económica y Ecológica del Sargazo en el Caribe Mexicano; Foro Consultivo Científico y Tecnológico, A.C.: Mexico City, Mexico, 2019; 15p. [Google Scholar]
  94. Bedoux, G.; Caamal-Fuentes, E.; Boulho, R.; Marty, C.; Bourgougnon, N.; Freile-Pelegrín, Y.; Robledo, D. Antiviral and cytotoxic activities of polysaccharides extracted from four tropical seaweed species. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2017, 12, 807–811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  95. Díaz-Resendiz, K.J.G.; Covantes-Rosales, C.E.; Benítez-Trinidad, A.B.; Navidad-Murrieta, M.S.; Razura-Carmona, F.F.; Carrillo-Cruz, C.D.; Frias-Delgadillo, E.J.; Pérez-Díaz, D.A.; Díaz-Benavides, M.V.; Zambrano-Soria, M.; et al. Effect of Fucoidan on the Mitochondrial Membrane Potential (ΔΨm) of Leukocytes from Patients with Active COVID-19 and Subjects That Recovered from SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Mar. Drugs 2022, 20, 99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Cruz-Estrada, R.H.; Cupul-Manzano, C.V.; Hernández-Rodríguez, I.F. Obtención de un compuesto con sargazo y plástico recuperado, con aplicación potencial como material de construcción. In Encuentro de Expertos en Residuos Sólidos; Cruz-Sotelo, S.E., Velasco Pérez, M.C., Ojeda Benítez, S.C., Jiménez Martínez, N.M., Ordaz Guillen, Y.C., Venegas Sahagún, B.A., Bernache Pérez, G.C., Hernández Berriel, M.C., González López, G.I., Jiménez Martínez, N., Eds.; Sociedad Mexicana de Ciencia y Tecnología Aplicada a Residuos Sólidos A.C.: Mexico City, Mexico, 2020; 8p. [Google Scholar]
  97. López-Sosa, L.; Morales-Máximo, M.; Anastacio-Paulino, R.; Custodio-Hernández, A.; Corral-Huacuz, J.; Aguilera-Mandujano, A. Electron microscopy characterization of Sargassum spp. from the Mexican Caribbean for application as a bioconstruction material. Microsc. Microanal. 2021, 27, 3140–3143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Arellanos-Huerta, M.E. Desarrollo de un Biopolímero a Partir de Residuos Orgánicos. Bachelor’s Thesis, Universidad Abierta y a Distancia de México, Mexico City, Mexico, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  99. Aparicio, E. Producción de Bioetanol a Partir de Sargassum spp. Aplicando Pretratamientos Hidrotérmicos. Master’s Thesis, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, Mexico, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  100. Aparicio, E.; Rodríguez-Jasso, R.M.; Pinales-Márquez, C.D.; Loredo-Treviño, A.; Robledo-Olivo, A.; Aguilar, C.N.; Kostas, E.T.; Ruiz, H.A. High-pressure technology for Sargassum spp. biomass pretreatment and fractionation in the third generation of bioethanol production. Bioresour. Technol. 2021, 329, 124935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  101. González-Fuentes, F.J.; Molina, G.A.; Silva, R.; López-Miranda, J.L.; Esparza, R.; Hernandez-Martinez, A.R.; Estevez, M. Developing a CNT-SPE sensing platform based on green synthesized AuNPs, using Sargassum spp. Sensors 2020, 20, 6108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  102. López-Miranda, J.L.; Esparza, R.; González-Reyna, M.A.; España-Sánchez, B.L.; Hernandez-Martinez, A.R.; Silva, R.; Estévez, M. Sargassum influx on the Mexican coast: A source for synthesizing silver nanoparticles with catalytic and antibacterial properties. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Pérez-Salcedo, K.Y. Generación de Energía Sustentable Mediante Electrocatalizadores a Partir del Sargassum sp. para la Reacción de Reducción de Oxígeno en Medio Alcalino. Ph.D. Thesis, CICY, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  104. López-Miranda, J.L.; Silva, R.; Molina, G.A.; Esparza, R.; Hernandez-Martinez, A.R.; Hernández-Carteño, J.; Estévez, M. Evaluation of a dynamic bioremediation system for the removal of metal ions and toxic dyes using Sargassum spp. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. International Conference on Sargassum. 2019. International Accords. Available online: http://gefcrew.org/carrcu/International_Conference_on_Sargassum-en.pdf (accessed on 25 October 2021).
  106. Devault, D.A.; Modestin, E.; Cottereau, V.; Vedie, F.; Stiger-Pouvreau, V.; Pierre, R.; Coynel, A.; Dolique, F. The silent spring of Sargassum. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 15580–15583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Assante, M.; Candela, L.; Castelli, D.; Manghi, P.; Pagano, P.; Nazionale, C. Science 2.0 repositories: Time for a change in scholarly communication. D-Lib Mag. 2015, 21, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  108. Marzinelli, E.M.; Leong, M.R.; Campbell, A.H.; Steinberg, P.D.; Vergés, A. Does restoration of a habitat-forming seaweed restore associated faunal diversity? Restor. Ecol. 2016, 24, 81–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Fraga, J.; Robledo, D. COVID-19 and Sargassum blooms: Impacts and social issues in a mass tourism destination (Mexican Caribbean). Marit. Stud. 2022, 21, 159–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. López-Miranda, J.L.; Celis, L.B.; Estévez, M.; Chávez, V.; Van Tussenbroek, B.I.; Uribe-Martínez, A.; Cuevas, E.; Pantoja, I.R.; Masia, L.; Cauich-Kantun, C.; et al. Commercial Potential of Pelagic Sargassum spp. in Mexico. Front. Mar. Sci. 2021, 8, 1–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, European Union, and Cooperation (MAEUEC). Market Opportunities on Circular Economy in Mexico. 2019. Available online: https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2021/04/Market-opportunities-Circular-Economy-Mexico_1.pdf (accessed on 27 May 2022).
  112. Acton, L.; Campbell, L.M.; Cleary, J.; Gray, N.J.; Halpin, P.N. What is the Sargasso Sea? The problem of fixing space in a fluid ocean. Political Geogr. 2019, 68, 86–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Rosado-Espinosa, L.A.; Freile-Pelegrín, Y.; Hernández-Nuñez, E.; Robledo, D. A comparative study of Sargassum species from the Yucatan Peninsula coast: Morphological and chemical characterization. Phycologia 2020, 59, 261–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. López Zenteno, A. Acciones para la Atención del Arribo Masivo del Sargazo en Aguas Mexicanas. Seminario-Taller Online Nacional Sobre Teledetección, Monitoreo, Pronóstico y Alerta Temprana del Sargazo Pelágico que Arriba a las Costas Mexicanas: Descubriendo Sinergias y Construyendo Puentes Hacia un Sistema Integral y Regional; CONACYT: Mexico City, Mexico, 2021.
  115. Uribe-Martínez, A.; Cuevas, E. Detección de Sargazo con Imágenes de Alta Resolución Espacial para la Estimación de Patrones Locales. Seminario-Taller Online Nacional Sobre Teledetección, Monitoreo, Pronóstico y Alerta Temprana del Sargazo Pelágico que Arriba a las Costas Mexicanas: Descubriendo Sinergias y Construyendo Puentes Hacia un Sistema Integral y Regional; CONACYT: Mexico City, Mexico, 2021.
  116. Salinas, J.A.; Maya-Magaña, M.E.; Hernández-Martínez, C. Diagnóstico de las Condiciones Atmosféricas Asociadas al Arribo de Sargazo a Costas de Quintana Roo; Research Internal Project; IMTA: Jiutepec, Morelos, Mexico, 2019; 39p. [Google Scholar]
  117. Sayas-Herazo, M.; Ramos-Díaz, A. Shock sistémico por Shewanella putrefaciens: Reporte de caso. Acta Colomb. Cuid. Intensivo 2021, 21, 334–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. El Imparcial. Voluntarios Recolectan 48 Toneladas de Sargazo en Playas de QR. 2019. Available online: https://www.elimparcial.com/mexico/Voluntarios-recolectan-48-toneladas-de-sargazo-en-playas-de-QR-20190527-0006.html (accessed on 21 October 2021).
  119. Notired. Las Multas que se Pueden Pagar Levantando Sargazo en Cancún. 2019. Available online: https://www.notired.info/?p=9379 (accessed on 21 October 2021).
  120. La Jornada. Tres Empresas se Convierten en Emblema en pro del Medio Ambiente. 2019. Available online: https://www.jornada.com.mx/2019/07/21/economia/016n1eco (accessed on 21 October 2021).
  121. Rosas-Medellín, D. Utilización del Sargassum spp. para Síntesis Verde de Nanopartículas de Platino y Producción de Carbón para Aplicaciones en la Generación de Energía. Master’s Thesis, CICY, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico, 2019. [Google Scholar]
Phycology 02 00014 g001 550
Figure 1. Phases and stages for the construction of a state of the art. Adapted and modified from Londoño-Palacio et al. [18].
Figure 1. Phases and stages for the construction of a state of the art. Adapted and modified from Londoño-Palacio et al. [18].
Phycology 02 00014 g001
Phycology 02 00014 g002 550
Figure 2. Percentage of projects or initiatives by type of document consulted.
Figure 2. Percentage of projects or initiatives by type of document consulted.
Phycology 02 00014 g002
Phycology 02 00014 g003 550
Figure 3. Percentage of projects or initiatives conducted by different sectors.
Figure 3. Percentage of projects or initiatives conducted by different sectors.
Phycology 02 00014 g003
Phycology 02 00014 g004 550
Figure 4. Percentage of projects or initiatives conducted by different institutions.
Figure 4. Percentage of projects or initiatives conducted by different institutions.
Phycology 02 00014 g004
Phycology 02 00014 g005 550
Figure 5. Percentage of projects assigned to each of the nine strategic lines.
Figure 5. Percentage of projects assigned to each of the nine strategic lines.
Phycology 02 00014 g005
Phycology 02 00014 g006 550
Figure 6. TRL Scale (Adapted from [89]) and an averaged TRL value for each major product or development in Mexico.
Figure 6. TRL Scale (Adapted from [89]) and an averaged TRL value for each major product or development in Mexico.
Phycology 02 00014 g006
Phycology 02 00014 g007 550
Figure 7. Number of projects conducted per study site.
Figure 7. Number of projects conducted per study site.
Phycology 02 00014 g007
Phycology 02 00014 g008 550
Figure 8. Number of experts per strategic line and sector. Green represents highest numbers, while lower numbers are colored in red.
Figure 8. Number of experts per strategic line and sector. Green represents highest numbers, while lower numbers are colored in red.
Phycology 02 00014 g008
Phycology 02 00014 g009 550
Figure 9. Number of experts per institution in Mexico.
Figure 9. Number of experts per institution in Mexico.
Phycology 02 00014 g009
Phycology 02 00014 g010 550
Figure 10. Identified challenges for an integrated Sargassum management.
Figure 10. Identified challenges for an integrated Sargassum management.
Phycology 02 00014 g010
Table
Table 1. Identified documents by origin source as part of the heuristic stage of the state of the art. From this number of documents, 185 met the established criteria.
Table 1. Identified documents by origin source as part of the heuristic stage of the state of the art. From this number of documents, 185 met the established criteria.
Information SourceIdentified Documents (n=)
Consorcio de Investigación del Golfo de México (CIGOM)2
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN (CINVESTAV) Repository2
Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua (IMTA) Repository6
Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán (CICY) Virtual library6
Centro Mexicano de Innovación en Energía Océano (CEMIE-Océano); Instituto Mexicano de la Propiedad Industrial (IMPI)8
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) Repository9
Colegio de La Frontera Sur (ECOSUR) Repository10
Databases of projects funded by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT)11
Non-structured online interviews15
Consorcio Nacional de Recursos de Información Científica y Tecnológica (CONRICyT)23
Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) Repository44
Web of Science49
CONACYT Repository55
Google search and Google scholar435
Table
Table 2. Knowledge advances from projects, studies and initiatives regarding the strategic line of origin and ecological importance.
Table 2. Knowledge advances from projects, studies and initiatives regarding the strategic line of origin and ecological importance.
SubareaWhat It Is KnownNeeds
Origin of the phenomenonThe transport of Sargassum from the ocean to coastal areas is not well understood and several variables are [30]. The nutrient input from rivers is not likely the main explanatory variable of atypical influxes [31]Scientific evidence to support different hypothesis associated with massive growth; open-access databases of variables to support models
Changes in biological and genetic structure of floating biomass (morphotypes)Sargassum morphotypes in Mexico differ from those reported in the Sargasso Sea [32]Systematized identification of species
Morphology shows phenotypic variations according to habitat and season [25,26]
Carbon sink and sediment supply to the deep sea and coastsSargassum fixate CO2 and it is a vital carbon sink and calcium carbonate producer for the coasts [33,34]Calcite production mechanisms in Sargassum and its epiphyte communities; Sargassum carbon flux measurements to deep ecosystems
Biological associationsBiological associations between Sargassum and various taxa vary in diversity and abundance according to the size of the Sargassum raft and its distance from the beach [3,4,35,36]Characterization of biological associations in open ocean, nearshore waters, and on the beach
Table
Table 3. Scientific and technological advances in the strategic line of monitoring, modeling and early warning.
Table 3. Scientific and technological advances in the strategic line of monitoring, modeling and early warning.
SubareaWhat It Has Been DoneNeeds
Remote sensing and ocean and coastal monitoringAlgorithms for the detection of Sargassum rafts from satellite images at different spatial and temporal resolutions [43,44,45]Continuous (i.e., hourly) and high-resolution (i.e., meters) detection of Sargassum rafts in coastal areas
Interactive platforms to visualize Sargassum at open ocean (Supplementary File S3)
Numerical models for drift predictionNested numerical models for the coastal zone [46,47]Resolving bathymetric, hydrographic and atmospheric conditions at appropriate resolution
Numerical models that include the biophysiological characteristics of Sargassum [39,48]Numerical models with high predictive capacity that can simulate the behavior of Sargassum; knowledge about Sargassum physiology, biological parameters, etc.
High-frequency radar coastal infrastructure to determine coastal scale wind and sea current patterns [49]Expansion of coverage and maintenance of this infrastructure
Early WarningWarning bulletins and Sargassum traffic lights (Supplementary File S3)Development of a robust early warning system to predict beach strandings
Monitoring in situOnline platform to collect and synthetize information on Sargassum volumes that arrive to the coast (Supplementary File S3)Continuous and systematic records of the occurrence of the phenomenon at fine temporal (i.e., daily) and spatial (i.e., meters) scales
Sargassum population dynamics [50]
Citizen Science for in situ monitoring [51,52]Improvements in statal telecommunication infrastructure (i.e., widespread free internet access) and massive informative campaigns
Table
Table 4. Knowledge advances in the strategic line of socioeconomic and environmental impacts.
Table 4. Knowledge advances in the strategic line of socioeconomic and environmental impacts.
SubareaWhat It Is KnownNeeds
TourismNot all indicators reflect a clear trend in relation to atypical influxes [53]Continuous and systematic monitoring of tourism indicators that allows to distinguish Sargassum-related fluctuations from other variables (e.g., inefficient tourism promotion, local insecurity)
Commercial fisheriesDuring atypical influxes, fishermen reduce or alter their activity [60]Documenting social impacts; a socio-economical perspective of the phenomenon
Human health and air pollutionToxic gas emissions from decomposing Sargassum and the potential growth of pathogenic bacteria [61]Documenting of health impacts; a public health perspective of the phenomenon
Leachates, eutrophication and contamination of aquifers and cenotesCoastal eutrophication leads to mortality of marine organisms [12,57]Management strategies that allow to contain and harvest Sargassum at sea; determination of disposal sites with adequate infrastructure to prevent leachates pollution; banning clandestine dumping; regulations compliance; studies outside touristic areas; restoration of beaches; long- term monitoring program
The region’s aquifer, including the cenotes, are contaminated because of leachates [59]; indirect contamination of cenotes also occurs due to a shift in tourism activities from the sea to coastal areas [14]
Species of the reef lagoon and coastal zoneOxidative damage in turtles [62]; fewer turtle hatchlings [63]
Loss of the seagrasses and the seafloor [12]
Total or partial mortality of coral reefs [64,65,66]
Fish and crustaceans’ massive mortality [13]
Erosion of beachesHeavy machinery used to collect Sargassum affects the coastal dynamics by removing and compacting the sand [67]Documenting containment and harvest technologies’ impacts
Table
Table 5. Knowledge advances in the strategic line of containment, harvest and disposal.
Table 5. Knowledge advances in the strategic line of containment, harvest and disposal.
SubareaWhat It Has Been DoneNeeds
Containment and deflection at seaDevelopment and installation of barriers (Supplementary File S3)Inventory of current technological developments, their effectiveness and their ecological effects (i.e., fauna disruption, substrate removal by anchorage systems, sand erosion and compaction, etc.)
Harvesting at seaDevelopment and use of trawlers (Supplementary File S3)Increasing the number and processing capacity of trawlers; development of on-board pre-processing techniques (e.g., milling, washing, pressing, etc.
Collecting at beachManual harvest (Supplementary File S3)Adequate material and maintenance; working conditions’ regulations
Mechanical machinery that prevents beach erosion and sand compaction (Supplementary File S3)Technological developments and innovation; monitoring and development of indicators to assess erosion, compaction and other ecosystem perturbations
Pre-processing techniques (e.g., sand removal, drying, etc.) (Supplementary File S3)
Temporary transfer and final disposal stationsIncipient integrated management plans (Supplementary File S3)Sargassum primary treatment stations; Sargassum disposal sites with adequate infrastructure characteristics to prevent leachates pollution; regulations compliance
Table
Table 6. Technological and scientific advances in the strategic line of potential uses.
Table 6. Technological and scientific advances in the strategic line of potential uses.
SubareaWhat It Has Been DoneNeeds
Agriculture industry and livestock goodsDevelopment of compost (Supplementary File S3)Change adverse perception of stranded Sargassum; intra and interannual characterization studies and bromatological analysis; determine suitability and safety of products and by-products; harvesting and processing (i.e., drying, pressing, desalination, milling) logistics; disposal procedures that facilitate technically, ecologically and economically viable conservation and storage for a permanent supply; Sargassum biomass pre-treatment with fungi and other microorganisms to increase energy efficiency
Sargassum-based substrates are rich in potassium magnesium and sodium. High salinity is a challenge for plant cultivation, but these substrates are suitable for the growth of commercial mushrooms [92,93]
Development and commercialization of biostimulants and biofertilizers (Supplementary File S3)
Chemistry, pharmaceutics and nutritional supplementsExtraction of alginates and fucoidans and commercialization of nutritional supplements (Supplementary File S3); fucoidan explored as treatment against herpes virus type I [94] and COVID-19 [95]
Fucoxanthin extraction processes [77]
EcomaterialsDevelopment and commercialization of bioconstruction materials (concrete, bricks and plates) (Supplementary File S3; [96,97])
Development and commercialization of Sargassum cellulose fiber footwear (Supplementary File S3)
Development of biopolymers with similar characteristics to those of conventional plastics (Supplementary File S3; [98])
Sargassum cellulose extraction and the development and commercialization of sustainable products (notebooks, agendas, folders, cup holders, menu holders and business cards, etc.) (Supplementary File S3)
Livestock feedSargassum as food for laying hens (Supplementary File S3)
BioenergeticsBioethanol production using a high-pressure technology pretreatment [99,100].
Biomethane production (Supplementary File S3; [81])
Biodiesel prototype product (Supplementary File S3)
Energy generation through hydrothermal carbonization (Supplementary File S3)
Advanced MaterialsSargassum aqueous extracts for electrocatalysts and the synthesis of platinum, gold and silver nanoparticles that can be used in the construction of electrochemical glucose sensing platforms, in the catalytic activity for blue methylene degradation and as antibacterials for Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) [85,86,87,101,102,103]
Bioremediation and purification mechanismsEffectiveness of a Sargassum-based bioremediation system for the removal of metal ions and toxic dyes in water [104]
Table
Table 7. Advances in the strategic lines of regulation, international cooperation, communication and education and restoration.
Table 7. Advances in the strategic lines of regulation, international cooperation, communication and education and restoration.
SubareaWhat It Has Been DoneNeeds
Regulations and legal frameworkThe Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SEMARNAT) National Guidelines (Supplementary File S3)Compulsory compliance of these guidelines; regulatory frameworks such as a NOM (Norma Oficial Mexicana or Mexican Official Standard)
Communication and education strategiesArticles, specialized magazines, websites of different federal government agencies, and mobile applications (Supplementary File S3)Local, state and regional informative campaigns
International cooperationMexico joined SargCoop [105]Multilateral strategies that bring together the knowledge and experiences of different nations
Restoration of affected habitatsEfforts to restore and rehabilitate ecosystems affected by atypical Sargassum influxes have not been documented in MexicoUnderstanding of environmental impacts of influxes; indicators to measure and monitor the ecological and environmental impacts over time; an adequate coastal regionalization that would allow a differentiated Sargassum management in different zones
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Rosellón-Druker, J.; Calixto-Pérez, E.; Escobar-Briones, E.; González-Cano, J.; Masiá-Nebot, L.; Córdova-Tapia, F. A Review of a Decade of Local Projects, Studies and Initiatives of Atypical Influxes of Pelagic Sargassum on Mexican Caribbean Coasts. Phycology 2022, 2, 254-279. https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology2030014

AMA Style

Rosellón-Druker J, Calixto-Pérez E, Escobar-Briones E, González-Cano J, Masiá-Nebot L, Córdova-Tapia F. A Review of a Decade of Local Projects, Studies and Initiatives of Atypical Influxes of Pelagic Sargassum on Mexican Caribbean Coasts. Phycology. 2022; 2(3):254-279. https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology2030014

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rosellón-Druker, Judith, Edith Calixto-Pérez, Elva Escobar-Briones, Jaime González-Cano, Luis Masiá-Nebot, and Fernando Córdova-Tapia. 2022. "A Review of a Decade of Local Projects, Studies and Initiatives of Atypical Influxes of Pelagic Sargassum on Mexican Caribbean Coasts" Phycology 2, no. 3: 254-279. https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology2030014

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop