The Human Superorganism: Using Microbes for Freedom vs. Fear
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Clear Risk-Benefit Communication with the Public for Self-Empowerment and Fear Reduction
2.1. Microbiota and Risk of Viral and/or Bacterial Pathogenesis
2.2. History of Secondary Bacterial Pneumonia Deaths in Human Pandemics and Animal Coronavirus Infections
2.3. The COVID-19 Example with Bacterial and/or Fungal Infections Causing Death
2.4. Adverse Risk Communication Regarding Mask Mandates
2.5. Risk of Microbiome, Barrier Function, and Immune (Microimmunosome) Degradation
3. The COVID-19 Pandemic, Fear-of-Contagion and Compliance
4. Regulation of Fear Extinction by the Microbiome and Public Health Implications
5. Defective Fear Extinction and Mental Health Implications
6. Lockdown of the Healthy: Sensory Dulling, Microbiota, and Mental Health
7. Importance of Dietary Factors, Prebiotics, Probiotics, and Fermented Foods
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Group Studied [Reference] | Findings |
---|---|
Italian researchers used text analytics to analyze and dissect official crisis messaging by the Italian government communicated via official statements and media publications during the COVID-19 pandemic. Public response to specific messaging was analyzed via Twitter involving more than 201,000 tweets. A specific quantitative formula was used to gauge the level of fear in each tweet. [65] | Key relationships were established between types of official and media messaging and the level of public fear. Algorithmns revealed seven dominant topics of specific government messaging at given times. A relationship between specific government communication and the daily level of fear could be determined. Messaging emphasizing the topic of Life-Changing Scenarios where there was individual/family loss of control produced the greatest fear among the public. The researchers concluded that governments have a responsibility to limit spreading panic and must balance the level of fear with proper causation or risk public psychological harm. |
A Netherlands online study was conducted with 2000 participants from 34 countries with the majority being European young adults. Questionnaires were used to evaluate different trigger topics, the levels of media access, and the levels of fear at different times during the pandemic [60]. | The most significant take-home conclusion was that those who experienced the greatest fear (1) had the most significant exposure to the media (frequently consulted regular media, professional websites, and social media for additional pandemic information) and (2) were concerned about risks for their loved ones. Anxiety traits, gender, and region of the world were also predictors of increased fear. |
A study of the Chinese population centered in Southwest University in China used pre-pandemic MRIs to determine the neural connectome for comparison with later pandemic fear responses. After exclusions, there were 444 study participants. [66] | A 5-item COVID-specific Fear Survey was developed by the researchers to assess fear level. The study revealed a high level of fear of contagion among participants during the pandemic. The pre-pandemic neural connectome pattern could predict those who would experience the highest pandemic fear from the those with the lowest levels of fear. The predictive values were: Accuracy rate = 75.00%; Sensitivity rate = 65.83%; Specificity rate = 84.17%. |
A study from Poland used a cross-sequential online survey with 202 participants (77% female) to examine factors surrounding mandate compliance. [67] | Researchers observed a significant moderate positive correlation between anxiety around COVID-19 and adherence to the mandates (e.g., required face and nose covering). The researchers also noted that pronounced fear of COVID-19 could be a risk factor for mental health challenges. |
A study of 297 young adult university students at German universities and without psychiatric disorders was conducted to examine whether participants with higher COVID-19-related anxiety exhibited impaired fear learning and generalization. [61] | Researchers at Saarland University used a 10-item modified version of the validated DSM-5 Severity Measure For Specific Phobia Adult Scale to determine participant anxiety level. They found that those students with high COVID anxiety exhibited poorer discrimination performance between fear and safety cues. |
A study of Australian and U.S. researchers with 2069 (majority-female) participants. Self-assessment surveys were used to obtain insomnia/sleep measures as well as stress, anxiety depression and mental health issues. [63] | The results showed that pre-existing or new-onset insomnia elevated the risk of affective disorder outcomes (anxiety and/or depression symptoms) during the pandemic. |
A study from Italy during a COVID-19 lockdown included 132 participants (91.7% female) and examined the relationships between specific fear of contagion for COVID-19, attentional bias toward virus-related stimuli, and health anxiety. [62] | Using remotely collected data, researchers found that higher health anxiety in general predicted an attentional bias toward a fear of COVID-19 contagion. |
A study from France of 118 healthcare workers in French geriatric facilities sought to examine the levels of emotional exhaustion (EE) during the pandemic and to examine the manner in which psychosocial conditions and fear of COVID-19 in the workplace affected EE [68] | Emotional exhaustion (EE) was evaluated using the EE subscale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory assessment tool. The Copenhagen Psychosocial questionnaire was used to assess psychosocial conditions and a fear of COVID-19 scale was determined via a 7-item self-reporting measure. Researchers found a significant increase in EE among the workers and this was related to both increased demands at work and increased fear of COVID-19 contagion. |
This brief review article from Italy examined the ramifications of fear of hospital contagion and reduction in available hospital emergency services relative to cardiac events and their health consequences. [69] | The review focuses on the high rate of at-home acute coronary syndrome with low hospital emergency service use during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. The authors concluded that: (1) fear of hospital contagion and desire to not overburden the system resulted in at-home health crises and that (2) problematic messaging likely contributed to unnecessary home deaths. |
This systematic review article from Spain and Ecuador researchers examined 17 research studies on fear and anxiety among pregnant women during the COVID-19 pandemic. [70] | The researchers reported that the COVID-19 pandemic produced a high prevalence of fear and anxiety with significant impact on the mental health of pregnant women. Lack of capacity to tolerate uncertainty was identified as one of the risk factors contributing to the high level of fear and anxiety. |
A web-based, cross-sectional, descriptive study from the King Khalid University Nursing Department examined fear of COVID-19, insomnia, and mental health issues among 145 female nursing students in Saudi Arabia. [71] | Fear of COVID-19 contagion, depression, anxiety and insomnia were highly prevalent among the students with fear of contagion being the most prevalent (79.3%), followed by anxiety (35.2%), depression (30.2%), and insomnia (24.7%). |
This review article from New York University Medical School researchers focused on highly vulnerable populations for pandemic fear-based mental health challenges. [72] | Women and young children were identified as highly vulnerable with mandates such as social isolation and school closures exacerbating fear-based anxiety and depression. The researchers discuss both the short-term and long-term adverse effects of isolation, socially-dividing blame and lack of support (e.g., stay-at-home orders). They also focus on the perinatal period of vulnerability and potential stress-based epigenetic programming in utero. |
Study [Reference] | Significant Findings |
---|---|
Early study on germ-free and specific pathogen free rats [105] | Absence of a microbiome produced HPA axis disruption, brain function changes and significantly heightened anxiety behavior and lack of cognitive flexibility. |
Research on mice concerning the neurobehavioral effects of transitory microbiome depletion in different age groups. [106] | Adolescent mice were more sensitive to transitory microbiome depletion than adults. Short-term depletion produced long-lasting shifts in fear-based learning, heightened anxiety-like behaviors and changes in amygdala gene expression in adolescents. |
Study examined the effects of multi-species probiotic (Bifidobacterium longum Lactobacillus acidophilus and Enterococcus faecalis) administration on recovery of fear memory after fear conditioning [107] | Probiotic administration in mice modulated fear conditioning-induced microbial dysbiosis, promoted long-term fear extinction, alleviated hippocampal synapse loss induced by fear conditioning, and limited microglia activation |
Study in mice examined the role of microbiota in fear extinction [108] | Researchers found that antibiotic treatment of adult mice resulting in microbiome dysbiosis produced impaired fear extinction. They also found that extinction learning and learning-related plasticity require microbiota-derived signals. Microbial deficits in early life produced deficits in fear extinction learning in adulthood. |
Study of maternal separation stress in rats and protective effects of probiotics [109] | Researchers found that maternally-separated male rat pups experienced inappropriate, accelerated development of fear circuitry/behavior and that probiotics protected against unbalanced fear. |
Study of the effects of the environmental/soil bacterium, Mycobacterium vaccae, on fear extinction in adult rats [110] | Researchers found that injection with M. vaccae preparations produced long-lasting enhancement of the rate of within-session fear extinction. |
Review of the relationship between gut microbiota, fear extinction, and mental illness with an emphasis on sex-based differences in microbiota. [111] | Researchers stressed that female stress-related, mental illness is significantly more prevalent than that in men. They emphasized the importance of sex hormones in the gut microbiota-brain regulation, gut microbiota differences based on sex and the need for female focused studies. |
Review of gut microbiota functionality of brain regions [84] | Effects of antibiotics and probiotics on fear extinction is included in this recent review |
Review concerning how nature, nurture, and microbiota mitigate stress. [112] | This review includes information on microbiota and fear extinction within the broader subject |
Review of probiotics as anti-anxiety and anti-depression psychobiotics [113] | This review emphasizes specific beneficial microbial metabolism |
Review of the microbiota-gut-brain axis in depression [114] | This review emphasizes pathophysiological mechanisms and processes through which microbiota have an anti-depressant function. |
Comprehensive review of gut microbiota in anxiety and depression [115] | This review considers a variety of strategies for gut rebiosis as an anti-anxiety, anti-depression tool. |
Condition [Reference] | Findings |
---|---|
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder [122] | Systematic review revealing importance of defective fear extinction |
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder [123] | Review of fear extinction as a predictor of PTSD |
Disruptive Behavior Disorder [124] | Fear extinction deficits reported to be involved in late adolescent endotype. |
Alcohol Dependency [125] | Fear conditioning and extinction with a focus on the role of amygdala in FCE-involved addiction |
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder [126] | Abnormal circuits for fear extinction detected in adults with ADHD |
Anxiety Disorders [127] | Focus on neurobiology of fear extinction for treatment of anxiety disorders |
Sense [Reference(s)] | Findings |
---|---|
Taste [139] | Review including the role of the microbiome in regulation of taste |
Taste [142] | Recent review of the role of oral microbiota in taste perception |
Taste [143] | A review detailing specific bacteria and their metabolism as it influences taste perception. The review also covered gut microbiome dysbiosis and linked pathologies. |
Taste [144] | Review of the tongue including the role of the tongue microbiome in taste perception. |
Smell [139] | Review including the role of the microbiome in regulation of smell |
Smell [145] | Recent review describing the pivotal role of nasal microbiota in olfactory development, function, and dysfunctions. |
Taste and Smell [146] | Human study reported that obese population displayed reductions in odor and taste preferences some of which were related to oral microbiota difference. |
Hearing [147,148] | Reviews provide evidence supporting a link between gut microbiome dysbiosis, inner ear inflammation, and sensorineural hearing loss. |
Hearing [149] | Study of the ear canal microbiota from healthy individuals vs. those with chronic otitis externa |
Hearing [150] | Study of 70 otitis media effusion children and two control groups revealed Streptococcus salivarius as a commensal with effective colonization resistance capacity against several key pathobionts. |
Neuropathic Pain (including Somatosensory function) [151] | Review of microbiome regulation of neuropathic pain |
Skin Sensitivity Syndrome [152] | Study examining the skin microbiome/mycobiome of 23 patients with sensitivity syndrome compared against control groups. |
Skin (sensitivity) [153] | Review covering most aspects of the skin microbiome including both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. |
Skin (sensitivity) [154] | Review of skin microbiome differences among healthy vs. diseased/sensitive skin |
Sight [155] | Review of dysbiotic gut microbiome-driven eye diseases (age-related macular degeneration, retinal artery occlusion, central serous chorioretinopathy and uveitis) via microbial metabolites and the immune system |
Sight [156] | Introduction to the recently discovered ocular surface microbiome. |
Sight [157] | Review of the role of the ocular microbiome in eye disease |
Sight [158] | Study of the characterization of healthy eye microbiomes |
Sight [159] | Study describes the role of specific ocular surface microbiota in contributing to dry eye disease in diabetic patients. |
Sight [160] | Review of intraocular microbiota |
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© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Dietert, R.R.; Dietert, J.M. The Human Superorganism: Using Microbes for Freedom vs. Fear. Appl. Microbiol. 2023, 3, 883-905. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol3030061
Dietert RR, Dietert JM. The Human Superorganism: Using Microbes for Freedom vs. Fear. Applied Microbiology. 2023; 3(3):883-905. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol3030061
Chicago/Turabian StyleDietert, Rodney R., and Janice M. Dietert. 2023. "The Human Superorganism: Using Microbes for Freedom vs. Fear" Applied Microbiology 3, no. 3: 883-905. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol3030061