Telecom, Volume 2, Issue 4 (December 2021) – 13 articles

Making the Internet of Things “green” has become a major research focus in recent years. The anticipated massive increase in the numbers of sensor and communication devices makes this endeavor even more important, resulting in various solution approaches ranging from energy harvesting to energy efficient routing schemes. In this work, we propose a system that can perform some of the main tasks of the Internet of Things, namely identification and sensing of an indoor moving object, by the means of visible light sensing in combination with off-the-shelf retroreflective foils, without the necessity to place any actively powered components on the object itself. By utilizing the supervised machine learning approach of random forest, we show that these two tasks can be fulfilled with up to 99.96% accuracy. Based on our previous findings in this regard, we propose some advancements and improvements of the overall system, yielding better results in parallel with an increased complexity of the system. Furthermore, we expand the number of performable tasks toward additional movement direction determination. The achieved results demonstrate the applicability of visible light sensing and its potentials for a “green” Internet of Things. Full article

In this paper we study a mobility-aware call admission control algorithm in a mobile hotspot. To this end, a vehicle is considered which has an access point with a fixed capacity. The vehicle alternates between stop and moving phases. When the vehicle is in the stop phase, it services new and handover calls by prioritizing them via a probabilistic bandwidth reservation (BR) policy. Based on this policy, new handover calls may enter the reservation space with a predefined probability. When the vehicle is in the moving phase, it services new calls only. In that phase, two different policies are considered: (a) the classical complete sharing (CS) policy, where new calls are accepted in the system whenever there exists available bandwidth, and (b) the probabilistic BR policy. Depending on the selected policy in the moving phase, we propose the probabilistic BR loss model (if the CS policy is selected) and the generalized probabilistic BR loss model (if the probabilistic BR policy is selected). In both stop and moving phases, where the call arrival process is Poisson, calls require a single bandwidth unit in order to be accepted in the system, while the service time is exponentially distributed. To analytically determine call blocking probabilities and the system’s utilization, we propose efficient iterative algorithms based on two-dimensional Markov chains. The accuracy of the proposed algorithms is verified via simulation. Full article

Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs) are getting increasingly complex and interconnected. Consequently, their inherent safety risks and security risks are so intertwined that the conventional analysis approaches which address them separately may be rendered inadequate. STPA (Systems-Theoretic Process Analysis) is a top-down hazard analysis technique that has been incorporated into several recently proposed integrated Safety and Security (S&S) analysis methods. This paper presents a novel methodology that leverages not only STPA, but also custom matrices to ensure a more comprehensive S&S analysis. The proposed methodology is demonstrated using a case study of particular commercial cloud-based monitoring and control system for residential energy storage systems. Full article

Much research effort has been conducted to introduce intelligence into communication networks in order to enhance network performance. Communication networks, both wired and wireless, are ever-expanding as more devices are increasingly connected to the Internet. This survey introduces machine learning and the motivations behind it for creating cognitive networks. We then discuss machine learning and statistical techniques to predict future traffic and classify each into short-term or long-term applications. Furthermore, techniques are sub-categorized into their usability in Local or Wide Area Networks. This paper aims to consolidate and present an overview of existing techniques to stimulate further applications in real-world networks. Full article

In this article, we present a comprehensive survey on time-sensitive applications implemented in fog computing environments. The goal is to research what applications are being implemented in fog computing architectures and how the temporal requirements of these applications are being addressed. We also carried out a comprehensive analysis of the articles surveyed and separate them into categories, according to a pattern found in them. Our research is important for the area of real-time systems since the concept of systems that respond in real time has presented various understandings and concepts. This variability of concept has been due to the growing requirements for fast data communication and processing. Therefore, we present different concepts of real-time and near real-time systems found in the literature and currently accepted by the academic-scientific community. Finally, we conduct an analytical discussion of the characteristics and proposal of articles. Full article

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can play a key role in meeting certain demands of cellular networks. UAVs can be used not only as user equipment (UE) in cellular networks but also as mobile base stations (BSs) wherein they can either augment conventional BSs by adapting their position to serve the changing traffic and connectivity demands or temporarily replace BSs that are damaged due to natural disasters. The flexibility of UAVs allows them to provide coverage to UEs in hot-spots, at cell-edges, in coverage holes, or regions with scarce cellular infrastructure. In this work, we study how UAV locations and other cellular parameters may be optimized in such scenarios to maximize the spectral efficiency (SE) of the network. We compare the performance of machine learning (ML) techniques with conventional optimization approaches. We found that, on an average, a double deep Q learning approach can achieve 93.46% of the optimal median SE and 95.83% of the optimal mean SE. A simple greedy approach, which tunes the parameters of each BS and UAV independently, performed very well in all the cases that we tested. These computationally efficient approaches can be utilized to enhance the network performance in existing cellular networks. Full article

This paper proposes a potential enhancement of handover for the next-generation multi-tier cellular network, utilizing two fifth-generation (5G) enabling technologies: multi-access edge computing (MEC) and machine learning (ML). MEC and ML techniques are the primary enablers for enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) and ultra-reliable and low latency communication (URLLC). The subset of ML chosen for this research is deep learning (DL), as it is adept at learning long-term dependencies. A variant of artificial neural networks called a long short-term memory (LSTM) network is used in conjunction with a look-up table (LUT) as part of the proposed solution. Subsequently, edge computing virtualization methods are utilized to reduce handover latency and increase the overall throughput of the network. A realistic simulation of the proposed solution in a multi-tier 5G radio access network (RAN) showed a 40–60% improvement in overall throughput. Although the proposed scheme may increase the number of handovers, it is effective in reducing the handover failure (HOF) and ping-pong rates by 30% and 86%, respectively, compared to the current 3GPP scheme. Full article

Nowadays, the demand for connection between the remote offices of a company, or between research locations, and constantly increasing work mobility (partly due to the current pandemic emergency) have grown hand in hand with the quality and speed of broadband connections. The logical consequence of this scenario is the increasingly widespread use of Virtual Private Network (VPN) connections. They allow one to securely connect the two ends of a connection via a dedicated network, typically using the Internet and reducing the costs of Content Delivery Network (CDN) lines (dedicated connections). At the same time, Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs) are able to decrease the impact of some scalability issues of large networks. Given the background above, this paper is focused on overviewing and surveying the main progresses related to VPNs and VLANs in wireless networks, by collecting the most important contributions in this area and describing how they can be implemented. We state that security issues in VLANs can be effectively mitigated through the combination of good network-management practices, effective network design and the application of advanced security products. However, obviously, the implementation of VPNs and VLANs poses specific issues regarding information and network security; thus some good solutions are also surveyed. Full article

The growing needs for high-speed and secure communications create an increasing challenge to the contemporary framework of signal processing. The coexistence of multiple high-speed wireless communication systems generates wideband interference. To protect the security and especially the privacy of users’ communications requires stealth communication that hides and recovers private information against eavesdropping attacks. The major problem in interference management and stealth information recovery is to separate the signal of interest from wideband interference/noise. However, the increasing signal bandwidth presents a real challenge to existing capabilities in separating the mixed signal and results in unacceptable latency. The photonic circuit processes a signal in an analog way with a unanimous frequency response over GHz bandwidth. The digital processor measures the statistical patterns of the signals with sampling rate orders of magnitude smaller than the Nyquist frequency. Under-sampling the signals significantly reduces the workload of the digital processor while providing accurate control of the photonic circuit to perform the real-time signal separations. The wideband mixed signal separation, based on photonic signal processing is scalable to multiple stages with the performance of each stage accrued. Full article

Virtualization is commonly accepted as the catalyst that would grant the internet the ability to shed the shackles of legacy technologies and evolve to its future self. In order to make this transformation feasible, unavoidable concurrent radical remodeling of all the involved counterparts is required, particularly in the context of automatically and optimally serving application requests by taking advantage of new virtualized environments and their latent capabilities. A considerable number of embedding strategies that efficiently map virtual computational and networking demands over physical resources have already been proposed in the literature, following different strategies. Among these suggested strategies, different coordination proposals have been adopted, in order to solve the node and link mapping functions. In this paper, we study the capabilities of the most popular embedding strategies, based on their coordination categorization. Our study confirms that by invoking a coordination strategy, especially the single stage one, added benefits on multiple performance layers can be achieved. Moreover, we propose a new mixed coordination algorithm, essentially creating a new category in the field of VNE coordination strategies. Full article

The exigency for continuous use of electrical devices has created greater demands for electricity along with more efficient transmission techniques. Energy from natural resources can be solar, thermal, vibration, friction, or Radio Frequencies (RF) signals. This state-of-the-art work provides a summary of RF energy harvesting techniques and can be used as a guide for the manufacture of RF energy scavenging modules. The use of Radio Frequency (RF) Energy Harvesting (EH) technique contributes to the development of autonomous energy devices and sensors. A rectenna system includes three main units: the receiving antenna, the impedance matching network, and the rectifier. We thoroughly analyze how to design a rectenna system with special emphasis given on the design of the rectifier. At the same time many works of the last 10 years are presented. This review article categorizes the used topologies depending on the type of antennas, IMNs, and rectifiers and comparatively presents their advantages and disadvantages. Full article

Radio frequency interference (RFI) constitutes a significant problem in achieving a good quality of service in radio links. Several techniques have been proposed to identify and mitigate RFI in wireless networks. However, most of these techniques are not generalized for all propagation environments due to varying geographical features from one environment to another. The need for extensive frequency scan measurements on the links to identify the available channels, evaluate the performances of the links, and detect RFI in the channels becomes imperative. This study presents a performance evaluation of frequency scan measurements from active microwave links comprising eighteen base stations. The measurements equipment included a spectrum analyzer and a 0.6 m antenna dish. The frequency scans were taken at 6 GHz, 7 GHz, and 8 GHz with full azimuth coverage of the horizontal and vertical polarization. Measured data were processed to determine the available frequencies and RFI in the channels. The histogram and probability density function of the frequency scans were computed. The cumulative distribution functions were determined, and the statistical error characteristics of the frequency scans for the estimated normal distribution and the estimated fitness curve were derived. The short-time Fourier transform of the noisy signal was obtained, and the signal without noise was recovered using the inverse short-time Fourier transform. Analysis of the scanned signals before and after the noise removal is demonstrated. The denoised signals compare favorably with related results in the preliminary literature. Overall, these frequency scans would be beneficial in evaluating RFI measurements and spectrum planning and hold great promise for designing robust RFI detection algorithms for future wireless systems. Full article

Many studies in literature have shown that the bandwidth of an ongoing flow can dynamically change during multimedia sessions and an efficient bandwidth allocation scheme must be employed. This paper focuses its attention on the management of predictive services in Wireless Infrastructure Dynamic Networks. In particular, two classes of service are considered: NSIS-Mobility Independent Predictive and NSIS-Mobility Dependent Predictive, where NSIS is the Next Steps in Signaling protocol, employed for resources reservation in Integrated Services architectures. A general prediction technique is proposed, based both on the analysis of time spent into a cell by mobile nodes and on the probabilities of hand-in and hand-out events of mobile nodes from wireless cells. User mobility needs to be firstly analyzed and a novel realistic mobility model has been considered, differently from some existing works in which synthetic mobility is generated. The analysis of user mobility is mandatory when the reduction of passive resource reservations for NSIS-MIP users is desired, with a good enhancement in system utilization. Moreover, predictive reservation and admission control schemes have been integrated. The performance of the 2D wireless system is evaluated in terms of average system utilization, system outage probability, number of admitted flows and reservation prediction errors. We provided to carry out an extensive simulation campaign, in order to assess the goodness of the proposed idea: we verified that good results (in terms of perceived utility, bandwidth and admitted flows) can be obtained, outperforming also some existing works. Full article