Structural Assessment Techniques for In-Service Crossarms in Power Distribution Networks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology for Literature Review
3. Conventional Crossarm Inspection Techniques
4. Decay of Timber Crossarms and Decay Identification
5. Flexural Strength of In-Service Crossarms
6. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Techniques for Crossarms
Improved Inspection Using Aerial Photographs
7. Strengthening Methods for In-Service Crossarm and Alternate Crossarm Types
8. Conclusions
- The conventional crossarm inspection techniques provided subjective results relying on the experience of the inspector, and thus the reliability of the obtained results was questionable.
- The improved inspection techniques using unmanned aerial vehicles and other non-destructive testing methods were capable of conducting an accurate condition assessment of in-service crossarms. Nevertheless, most of these techniques required post-processing, compromising the ease of obtaining results.
- Each condition assessment technique was found to have added advantages as well as limitations and shortcomings. Thus, it can be concluded that for an effective, accurate, and reliable condition assessment system for crossarms, an integrated approach is required, combining the conventional inspection methods, improved inspection techniques, and non-destructive testing techniques. Integrated approaches can be complemented with artificial intelligence to develop automated condition monitoring of crossarms.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Pandey, M.D.; Ho, V.; Bedi, S.; Woodward, S.B. Development of a condition assessment model for transmission line in-service wood crossarms. Can. J. Civ. Eng. 2005, 32, 480–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolfe, R.; Moody, R. Standard Specifications for Wood Poles, Forest Products Laboratory; US Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC, USA, 1997.
- Barnes, H.M.; Winandy, J.E. Bending properties of wooden crossarms. In Proceedings of the American Wood Preservers’ Association, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA, 15–17 May 2001; Volume 97, pp. 30–38. [Google Scholar]
- Francis, L.; Norton, J. Australian Timber Pole Resources for Energy Networks. A Review; Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Queensland Government: Brisbane, Australia, 2006.
- Nguyen, M.; Foliente, G.; Wang, X.M. State-of-the-practice & challenges in non-destructive evaluation of utility poles in service. Key Eng. Mater. 2004, 270, 1521–1528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bandara, S.; Rajeev, P.; Gad, E. Deterioration modelling of timber utility poles. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction Management, ICSECM 2019, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 10–14 December 2019; Springer: Singapore, 2021; pp. 417–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, R.S. Weathering of wood. In Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005; pp. 139–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brischke, C.; Bayerbach, R.; Otto Rapp, A. Decay-influencing factors: A basis for service life prediction of wood and wood-based products. Wood Mater. Sci. Eng. 2006, 1, 91–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bandara, S.; Rajeev, P.; Gad, E. Structural health assessment techniques for in-service timber poles. Struct. Infrastruct. Eng. 2021, 7, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mousavi, M.; Taskhiri, M.S.; Holloway, D.; Olivier, J.C.; Turner, P. Feature extraction of wood-hole defects using empirical mode decomposition of ultrasonic signals. NDT E Int. 2020, 1, 102282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bandara, S.; Rajeev, P.; Gad, E.; Sriskantharajah, B.; Flatley, I. Damage detection of in service timber poles using Hilbert-Huang transform. NDT E Int. 2019, 1, 107:102141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bandara, S.; Rajeev, P.; Gad, E.; Sriskantharajah, B. Damage severity estimation of timber poles using stress wave propagation and wavelet entropy evolution. J. Nondestruct. Eval. Diagn. Progn. Eng. Syst. 2021, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mudiyanselage, S.; Rajeev, P.; Gad, E.; Sriskantharajah, B.; Flatley, I. Application of stress wave propagation technique for condition assessment of timber poles. Struct. Infrastruct. Eng. 2019, 2, 1234–1246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mousavi, M.; Gandomi, A.H. Wood hole-damage detection and classification via contact ultrasonic testing. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 8, 124999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhandarkar, S.M.; Luo, X.; Daniels, R.; Tollner, E.W. A novel feature-based tracking approach to the detection, localization, and 3-D reconstruction of internal defects in hardwood logs using computer tomography. Pattern Anal. Appl. 2006, 9, 155–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bell, P. Power Distribution Asset Inspection; Australian Utility Pole Workshop, University of the Sunshine Coast Sippy Downs: Sunshine Coast, QLD, Australia, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Singh, J. Dry rot and other wood-destroying fungi: Their occurrence, biology, pathology and control. Indoor Built Environ. 1999, 8, 3–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, C.H.; Leicester, R.H.; Nguyen, M. Probabilistic procedure for design of untreated timber poles in-ground under attack of decay fungi. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 2008, 1, 476–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khalid, K.; Hamami, M.; Cheong, N.K.; Fuad, S.A. Microwave reflection sensor for determination of decay in wooden cross-arms. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Properties and Applications of Dielectric Materials (Cat. No. 00CH36347), Xi’an, China, 21–26 June 2000; Volume 2, pp. 595–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khalid, K.; Kean, L.S.; Cheong, N.K.; Sahri, H.; Aziz, S.A. Development of Ultrasonic and Microwave Techniques for Detection of Decay in Wooden Cross-arms. In Proceedings of the 116th WCNDT 2004—World Conference of NDT, Montreal, Canada, 18–21 May 2004; pp. 2–4. [Google Scholar]
- Ho, V.W.; Pandey, M.D.; Bedi, S. Effects of surface decay on remaining strength of transmission-line wood cross-arms. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2007, 26, 419–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 05.3 Solid Sawn Wood Crossarms and Braces: Specifications and Dimensions; ANSI: New York, NY, USA, 2015; 52p. [Google Scholar]
- West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau (WCLIB). Standard No 17: Grade and Dressing Rules for Douglas-Fir, Western Hemlock, Western Redcedar, Spruce-Pine-Fir South and Other Species; WCLIB: Portland, OR, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Australian Standard (AS). 3818.4 Timber-Heavy Structural Products—Visually Graded, Part 4: Cross-Arms for Overhead Lines; Standards Australia Limited: Sydney, Australia, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Carradine, D.M.; Gonzalez, J.R. Evaluating Brazilian wood species for utility pole and cross arm use. In Proceedings of the World Conference on Timber Engineering, Portland, OR, USA, 6–10 August 2006; pp. 466–473. [Google Scholar]
- Pandey, M.D.; Ho, V.; McCarthy, F.; Woodward, S.B. Experimental evaluation of remaining strength of crossarms in Gulfport transmission line wood structures. Can. J. Civ. Eng. 2010, 37, 638–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Catchot, T.; Owens, F.C.; Shmulsky, R.; Barnes, H.M. Comparison of wood utility crossarm properties from 1995 and 2015. For. Prod. J. 2017, 67, 50–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anderson, C.H.; Sinha, A.; Konkler, M.J.; Morrell, J.J. Ability to predict flexural properties of Douglas-fir crossarms. Wood Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021, 2, 366–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shahi, A. Strengthening of Wooden Cross arms in 230 kV Transmission Structures Using Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Wrap. Master’s Thesis, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Liebel, S.A.; Mueller, R.E. Douglas fir crossarms: Solid sawn vs. laminated comparison. In Proceedings of the IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference, Chicago, IL, USA, 10–15 April 1994; pp. 581–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ergon Energy, Overhead Distribution Assemblies-Technical Specification; Ergon Energy: Townsville, QLD, Australia, 2007.
- Miller, D.G. Nondestructive Testing of Crossarms tot Strength; Canadian Department of Forestry Publications: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1963; No. 1021. [Google Scholar]
- Stack, J.R.; Harley, R.G.; Springer, P.; Mahaffey, J.A. Estimation of wooden cross-arm integrity using artificial neural networks and laser vibrometry. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2003, 14, 1539–1544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bin Khalid, K.; bin Shari, M.H.; Keong, N.K.; Fuad, S.A. Microwave dielectric properties of wooden cross-arms. In Proceedings of the SPIE’s International Symposium on Optical Science, Engineering, and Instrumentation, Dencover, CO, USA, 18–23 July 1999; Volume 3752, Subsurface Sensors and Applications. pp. 146–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barras, I. High-Tech Hammer Measures Crossarm Integrity-Sophisticated impact testing technique enables Energy to evaluate physical condition of crossarms using helicopter crews. Transm. Distrib. World 2004, 56, 44–51. [Google Scholar]
- Li, Z.; Liu, Y.; Walker, R.; Hayward, R.; Zhang, J. Towards automatic power line detection for a UAV surveillance system using pulse coupled neural filter and an improved Hough transform. Mach. Vis. Appl. 2010, 21, 677–686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mirallès, F.; Pouliot, N.; Montambault, S. State-of-the-art review of computer vision for the management of power transmission lines. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry, Foz do Iguacu, Brazil, 14–16 October 2014; pp. 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larrauri, J.I.; Sorrosal, G.; González, M. Automatic system for overhead power line inspection using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle—RELIFO project. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS), Atlanta, GA, USA, 28–31 May 2013; pp. 244–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luque-Vega, L.F.; Castillo-Toledo, B.; Loukianov, A.; Gonzalez-Jimenez, L.E. Power line inspection via an unmanned aerial system based on the quadrotor helicopter. In Proceedings of the MELECON 17th IEEE Mediterranean Electrotechnical Conference, Beirut, Lebanon, 13–16 April 2014; pp. 393–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deng, C.; Wang, S.; Huang, Z.; Tan, Z.; Liu, J. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Power Line Inspection: A Cooperative Way in Platforms and Communications. J. Commun. 2014, 9, 687–692. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Da Silva, F.R.; Altafim, R.A.; Hirakawa, R. Cross-arms Identification with Adaptive Digital Image Processing. Int. J. Comput. Appl. 2015, 1, 35–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jenssen, R.; Roverso, D. Automatic autonomous vision-based power line inspection: A review of current status and the potential role of deep learning. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2018, 99, 107–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jenssen, R.; Roverso, D. Intelligent monitoring and inspection of power line components powered by UAVs and deep learning. IEEE Power Energy Technol. Syst. J. 2019, 6, 11–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Altafim, R.A.; Silva, J.F.; Basso, H.C.; Junior, C.C.; Sartori, J.C.; Altafim, R.A.; Chierice, G.O.; Silveira, A. Study of timber crossarms coated with castor oil-based polyurethane resins: Electrical and mechanical tests. In Proceedings of the Conference Record of the 2004 IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation, Indianapolis, IN, USA, 19–22 September 2004; pp. 556–559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Altafim, R.A.; Silva, J.F.; Gonzaga, D.P.; Ribeiro, C.; Godoy, J.; Basso, H.C.; Bueno, B.; Calil Júnior, C.; Sartori, J.C.; Altafim, R.A.; et al. Wood cross-arms coated with polyurethane resin-tests and numerical simulations. Mater. Res. 2006, 9, 77–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Piao, C.; Monlezun, C.J. Laminated crossarms made from decommissioned chromated copper arsenate–treated utility pole wood. Part I: Mechanical and acoustic properties. For. Prod. J. 2010, 60, 157–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davidson, J.W. Composite Utility Poles & Crossarms. In Proceedings of the Electrical Transmission in a New Age Conference, Omaha, NE, USA, 9–12 September 2002; pp. 200–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grzybowski, S.; Disyadej, T. Electrical performance of fiberglass crossarm in distribution and transmission lines. In Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition, Chicago, IL, USA, 21–24 April 2008; pp. 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, J.J.; Schoenoff, M.S. Effects of Natural Sunlight on Fiberglass Reinforced Polymers for Crossarms. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Rural Electric Power Conference (REPC), Memphis, TN, USA, 6–9 May 2018; pp. 101–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rawi, I.M.; Rahman, M.S.; Ab Kadir, M.Z.; Izadi, M. Wood and fiberglass crossarm performance against lightning strikes on transmission towers. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Power Systems Transients, Seoul, Korea, 26–29 June 2017; pp. 1–6. [Google Scholar]
- Nadhirah, A.; Beddu, S.; Mohamad, D.; Zainoodin, M.; Nabihah, S.; Zahari, N.M.; Itam, Z.; Mansor, M.H.; Kamal, N.L.; Alam, M.A.; et al. Properties of fiberglass crossarm in transmission tower-a review. Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res. 2017, 12, 15228–15233. [Google Scholar]
- Asyraf, M.R.; Ishak, M.R.; Sapuan, S.M.; Yidris, N. Conceptual design of creep testing rig for full-scale cross arm using TRIZ-Morphological chart-analytic network process technique. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2019, 1, 5647–5658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asyraf, M.R.; Ishak, M.R.; Sapuan, S.M.; Yidris, N. Comparison of static and long-term creep behaviors between balau wood and glass fiber reinforced polymer composite for cross-arm application. Fibers Polym. 2021, 22, 793–803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alhayek, A.; Syamsir, A.; Supian, A.B.; Usman, F.; Asyraf, M.R.; Atiqah, M.A. Flexural Creep Behaviour of Pultruded GFRP Composites Cross-Arm: A Comparative Study on the Effects of Stacking Sequence. Polymers 2022, 25, 1330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Year | Sources | Search String |
---|---|---|
1969–2021 | Web of Science (All Fields) | AND timber, AND “non-destructive testing” OR “destructive testing”, OR “timber cross arms”, OR deterioration, OR “composite cross arms”, OR weathering, OR “visual inspection” |
Study | Crossarm Dimensions, Species, Number of
Specimens Tested and Remarks | Results and Remarks (Mean Values of MOR, MOE) |
---|---|---|
[3] | 89–114 mm and 95–120 mm, Douglas fir. | Southern Pine: MOR 75.9 MPa, MOE 13.8 GPa. |
89–114 mm and 95–120 mm, Southern Pine. | Douglas fir: MOR 63 MPa, MOE 15 GPa. | |
35 specimens of 2.4 m span. | Southern Pine: MOR 75.9 MPa, MOE 13.8 GPa. | |
[25] | 95–120 mm, 2.5 m span. | Piquia: MOR 69.9 MPa, MOE 10,580 MPa. |
5 species were tested with 60 specimens per species. | Tauari Vermelho: MOR 59.2 MPa, MOE 7650 MPa. | |
[26] | Circular crossarm specimens of average diameters of 18.5, 22.2, 25.2, and 27 cm, 9.1 m span. Western Red Cedar: 7 specimens. Northern White Cedar:11 specimens. Jack Pine: 26 specimens. | Western Red Cedar: average strength 32.8 MPa. Northern White Cedar: average strength 28.9 MPa. Jack Pine: average strength 33.3 MPa. Red Pine: average strength 40.5 MPa. |
[27] | 89–114 mm, 2.44 m span. Southern Pine: 60 specimens. Douglas fir: 60 specimens. Compared the flexural strength parameters with previous findings of [3]. | Southern Pine: MOR 70.5 MPa, MOE 13.4 GPa.
Douglas fir: MOR 59.8 MPa, MOE 13 GPa. Comparison of strength parameters over a 20-year interval showed that these parameters have reduced due to silvicultural processes and other changes. |
[28] | 93.8–118.8 mm, Douglas fir, 250 specimens, span 2.4 m. Tested both rejected (according to specifications) and intact crossarms. 200 rejected specimens and 50 accepted specimens. | Accepted specimens: MOR 76 MPa, MOE 7537 MPa. Rejected specimens: MOR 65 MPa, MOE 6715 MPa. Most of the rejected specimens (due to presence of knots) illustrated higher MOR than the requirement in American standard specification. |
[29] | Tests were carried out to evaluate the strength enhancement via glass-fibre-reinforced polymer wrap (GFRP). Circular crossarm specimens with diameter 229–286 mm, 3.2 m span, 3 reference specimens, 3 specimens strengthened with GFRP (wrap thickness 0.6 m and 1.2 m), and crack-filled surface preparation. | Reference specimens: MOR 28 MPa. Strengthened specimens: MOR 39.9 MPa. GFRP wrapping had substantial improvements in the flexural strength. |
[30] | Tests were carried out to compare the bending strength of laminated specimens with solid sawn specimens. 89–114 mm and 95–120 mm, 3 different spans of 2.1, 2.4, and 3 m, Douglas fir. 10 specimens—solid sawn timber. 10 specimens—vertically laminated. 27 specimens—horizontally laminated. | Solid sawn specimens: MOR 60.1 MPa. Vertically laminated specimens: MOR 50.6 MPa. Horizontally laminated specimens: MOR 46.9 MPa. 5 horizontally laminated specimens and 1 vertically laminated specimen failed at finger joint location. Laminated crossarms can reach the strength specifications for solid sawn crossarms under proper quality control. |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rajeev, P.; Bandara, S.; Gad, E.; Shan, J. Structural Assessment Techniques for In-Service Crossarms in Power Distribution Networks. Infrastructures 2022, 7, 94. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures7070094
Rajeev P, Bandara S, Gad E, Shan J. Structural Assessment Techniques for In-Service Crossarms in Power Distribution Networks. Infrastructures. 2022; 7(7):94. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures7070094
Chicago/Turabian StyleRajeev, Pathmanthan, Sahan Bandara, Emad Gad, and Johnny Shan. 2022. "Structural Assessment Techniques for In-Service Crossarms in Power Distribution Networks" Infrastructures 7, no. 7: 94. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures7070094