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Review

Gels, Aerogels and Hydrogels: A Challenge for the Cellulose-Based Product Industries

by
Bogdan-Marian Tofanica
1,*,
Dan Belosinschi
2,* and
Irina Volf
1,*
1
Laboratory for Complex and Integrated Processing of Biomass Resources, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, 73, Prof. Dr. Docent D. Mangeron Boulevard, 700050 Iasi, Romania
2
Département de Chimie-Biologie/Biologie Medicale, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivieres, QC G8Z 4M3, Canada
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Gels 2022, 8(8), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080497
Submission received: 1 July 2022 / Revised: 19 July 2022 / Accepted: 26 July 2022 / Published: 10 August 2022
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
During recent decades, the interest in renewable, biodegradable, non-fossil materials has been exponentially increasing. Thus, cellulose and cellulose-derived products have been extensively considered for a wide variety of new potential uses. Due to the sustainability of cellulosic raw materials and their excellent properties, the use and modification of cellulose-based materials can be versatile in the material science and technology community. In this featured article, the fundamentals and background of cellulose-based gels are presented, and approaches, prospects and developments in the field, including their potential future applications, are discussed.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

According to the latest version of The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) Gold Book [1], gels are defined as non-fluid colloidal network or polymer network that is expanded throughout its whole volume by a fluid. Additionally, the Polymer Science Dictionary [2], describe gels as crosslinked polymers and their swollen matters with three-dimensional network structures that are insoluble in any solvents (Appendix A). A gel consists of a solid three-dimensional network that forms the structure and a medium within. Although it is possible for the medium to be a gas, it can also to be a fluid. Generally speaking, there are aerogels, which use air as the medium, and hydrogels when a liquid is the medium for a gel [3].
Among the polymers that can form gels, cellulose and emerging cellulose-based nanomaterials have recently become of increased interest as a sustainable and renewable material that has the potential to produce low-cost and high-performance gels [4]. Cellulose in various forms: nanocrystals (CNC), nanofibrils (CNF), nanocrystalline (NCC), nanowhiskers (CNW), nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) and microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), can be isolated from naturally rich cellulosic sources such as wood, cotton, annual plants, tunicates, algae and bacteria by controlled mechanical or chemical treatment, or by a combination of the two.These cellulose-based resources that have at least one dimension on the nanoscale (lower than 100 nm) are being considered for many potential uses in a wide range of biomedical, energy, and separation applications and in cosmetic and food products.
The characteristics of cellulose gels, such as molecular mass, degree of crystallinity, mechanical performance, thermal stability and physicochemical properties on one side, and structural properties, extraction processes used in their production and pretreatment and post-treatment processes on the other side, are determined by the raw materials from which they derived. Therefore, cellulose-based gels are divided into three categories determined by the source from which their polymer is derived: natural cellulose gels, regenerated cellulose gels and cellulose derivate gels.
The purpose of the present manuscript is not to provide another review, but, considering the important developments in the use of cellulose-based gels, to build on the accumulated knowledge in this area and to deliver a synthetic explanation of cellulosic gels including: (i) the preparation of cellulose-based gels; (ii) the properties of cellulose-based gels; and finally (iii) the applications of cellulosic gels in common fields of application.

2. Preparation of Cellulose-Based Gels

Cellulose is considered to be the most abundant natural polymer, being mainly found in the cell walls of land plants. Native cellulose is found in both hardwoods and softwoods (as their main structural component—about 50% cellulose) and cotton (about 95%), which are the major sources for conversion to a wide variety of useful products, including: materials (fibers for pulp and paper, textiles, cardboard, construction panels, etc.), chemicals (plastics, films, emulsifiers, thickening additives in food, feed, cosmetics, etc.) and energy (direct burning, conversion to fuels, etc.).
Since cellulose is chemically a very stable water-insoluble polysaccharide, the production of aerogels from cellulose requires a technology or processing route to break down the plant cell walls into building elements, as seen in Figure 1 (best without degradation of the fiber or reduction of the degree of polymerization) and then to assemble them into an appropriate low-density, open porous material that can be dried to obtain a 3D structure using supercritical carbon dioxide or lyophilization, organic solvent-mediated freeze drying at ambient pressure or low vacuum [5,6,7,8,9].
Although cellulose exhibits hydrophilic and hygroscopic properties, due to inter- and intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl groups in the macromolecular chains, it is insoluble in water and most organic solvents. There are two ways to dissolve cellulose: dissolving it in a solvent without any further modification or by derivatization. Three dissolving agents are widely used for aerogels [10]:
  • NaOH or LiOH water solutions with additions of small amounts of urea, thiourea, polyethylene glycol (PEG), ZnO and others [11];
  • Ionic liquids, most frequently based on N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) with stabilizers against oxidation [12,13];
  • Molten salt hydrate, such as ZnCl2, Ca(SCN)2, LiClO4, etc. [14].
Derivatization is a technique used to modify the physical and chemical properties of cellulose and an important route to functionalizing it. Cellulose can be converted to esters or ethers (cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate, cellulose sulfates, cellulose phosphate, methylcellulose, ethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, etc.) that are soluble in water and/or typical organic solvents [15].
Cellulose aerogels are mainly made from regenerated cellulose. Regeneration after dissolution to the polymeric level leads to polymeric chains consisting of pure cellulose macromolecules, generally known as type II cellulose, compared with cellulose I, natural cellulose. The best-known route is the viscose process leading to rayon filaments, known as mercerization. Cellulose is soaked below room temperature in a strong alkali solution such that the crystalline structure converts from cellulose I to cellulose II polymorphs. The alkali–cellulose solution is mixed with toxic carbon disulfide to form cellulose xanthate, resulting in a very viscous liquid, viscose, that can be converted back into cellulose by immersion in an acid medium and extruded through a spinneret to make rayon filaments [16].
Cellulose hydrogels can be obtained via physical stabilization or chemical reaction of cellulose, cellulose derivatives or a mixture of the two. In chemically formed hydrogels, covalent interactions are developed between functional groups of the macromolecular chains [17]. The main covalent coupling reactions used are Michael additions, click chemistry reactions, Schiff’s base formation, photo-cross-linking and enzyme-mediated cross-linking. Agents for cross-linking are usually employed to build covalent interactions between macromolecular chains. Physically formed hydrogels are produced by physical interactions, such as hydrogen bonding, Van der Waals forces, electrostatic interactions, chain entanglements and hydrophobic forces, to cross-link molecule chains [18,19].

3. Properties of Cellulose-Based Gels

The methods used to characterize cellulose gels are the same as for wood chemistry in classical materials science, as shown in Table 1. However, some specific features of cellulose-based gels should be considered in order to obtain reliable information. On the other hand, considering the large number of parameters used to prepare gels, an adequate comparison is quite challenging. Gels are water-swelling, 3D polymeric networks that have a huge capacity to absorb liquids that can be as much as thousands of times the mass of the polymers themselves. High porosity, high specific surface, high mechanical strength, low density and hydrophilic nature are the main features of cellulose-based gels that have played an essential role in the development of new uses [20].
Electron microscopy. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) are commonly used methods to study the morphology and microstructure of cellulose-based gels, however, they cannot be used to quantify them. As can be seen in Figure 2, the scanning mode methodology with transmitted signal collection help to observe the surface and interior morphology and calculate the specific surface area and pore distribution (micro-, meso- or macro-pores), in order to facilitate characterization of gel textures [21].
Porosity, specific surface area and density characterization are important properties of three-dimensional porous materials that are usually determined by measuring sample mass, dimensions and volumes, which are always necessary for the cellulose-based gels to be efficiently used as adsorbents, insulators, catalysts, etc. High porosity, large specific surface area and low density provide high mechanical properties, high adsorption capacity, high impact shock absorption and lightweight characteristics for gel materials [22].
Mechanical characterization. The mechanical properties of cellulose-based gels are closely dependent on, and explicable by, the morphology of the gel. Generally, the larger the pores in the gel three-dimensional structure, the lower the mechanical attributes. Furthermore, the porosity of the fabricated gel is dependent on the initial precursor material, methods of preparation, additive materials, fillers and physical conditions. In principle, cellulosic gels demonstrate higher mechanical strengths, such as high modulus, compressive strength, energy absorption capacity, flexibility, etc. [23].
Rheology. Rheological parameters of cellulose gels are employed to characterize the types of structural organization found in the system (i.e., association, entanglement and cross-links). These properties are influenced by properties of cellulosic raw materials such as crystallinity, degree of polymerization/molecular mass, gelation properties and the type of process involved in the gel formulation [24].
Swelling. The ability to display a quantifiable change in volume in response to external stimuli is an important property of gels. In the case of aerogels, cellulose is readily wetted by water, even when exposed to the atmosphere, and exhibits considerable swelling until saturated once they have absorbed appreciable amounts of water. Chemical modification can change the hygroscopic and hydrophilic behavior of cellulose-based aerogels. In hydrogels, the degree of crosslinking influences the volume permitted for diffusion inside the network and, subsequently, their capacity to take up fluids/water [25].
Conductivity. Thermal, electric and sound conductivity are special and exciting properties of gels. Because of high porosity and low density, some aerogels are to be considered insulating materials, while, intuitively, it is clear that hydrogels, hydrophilic and adsorbing in nature, favor conductivity. Molecular modelling can be very helpful in devising new desired properties and new applications [26].
Chemical/physical characterization. Various chemical modifications of cellulose gels have been developed to extend their intractable intrinsic properties: esterification, etherification, sulphonation, phosphorylation, oxidation, and polymer grafting have all been applied through the chemical modification of hydroxyl groups.
The presence of functional groups on the cellulosic macromolecular backbone affects all properties. Thus, the physical and chemical characteristics of the gels are adjusted through the modification of functional groups. The presence of functional groups on the cellulose backbone can be characterized easily by ultra-violet-visible spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared spectrophotometry and mass spectrophotometry [27].

4. Applications

Cellulose-based gels are commonly used in many different domains, industries and environmental areas of application: textile, agriculture, horticulture, personal hygiene products, biomedical, pharmaceuticals, etc.
Properties of cellulose-based gels such as viscosity, solubility, porosity, absorbency, permeability, elasticity–flexibility, high water content and high surface area give this class of materials a remarkable array of applications: antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, nontoxic, wound dressing, tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, drug delivery, personal care products, barrier and food packaging, pharmaceuticals, biomedicine, etc.
These materials are also being increasingly exploited in smart materials and applications, such as stimuli–response materials, contaminant removal, corrosion inhibitors, delivery of agrochemicals (pesticides, fertilizers, etc.), water treatment and water withholding in desert and arid areas [28].
Furthermore, thanks to cellulose’s chemical reactivity, large number of diverse derivatives, various functionalities, flexible preparation process, and numerous methods of modification, cellulose-based gels are generally multi-functional.
Currently, through efficient methods to tailor gels’ properties, they are mainly used in adsorption and separation, insulation and construction materials, biomedical devices, packaging products, sorbents, environmental remediation, the automotive industry, electronics, sensors and apparel [29,30].
The current analysis will not focus on discussion of niche products or emerging applications related to non-industrial large-scale relevance, including those in polymer/metal particles composites (metal nanoparticle support, magnetic gels, quantum dots, photocatalytic materials, etc), carbon-cellulose gels (catalysts, sensors, proton exchange membrane fuel cell, CO2 capture, etc), cellulosic gels in electrical devices and energy storage (sensors, electrodes for batteries, supercapacitors, wearable and portable electronics, electronic paper, optical materials, etc), anti-bacterial/-viral/-microbial/-fungal materials (silver nanoparticles embedded cellulosic gels, etc).
Biomedical application. Natural, non-toxic, biodegradable and biocompatible cellulose gels can be used in drug delivery, cell culture, cell therapy, cell biology, biosensors, regenerative medicine, drug development and many other biomedical applications. Cellulose-based aerogels are receiving growing interest in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications due to their porous structure and high surface area, which can provide enhanced drug bioavailability, better drug-loading capacity, drug transport, polymer scaffold fabrication, vascular grafts, biosensing and diagnostic purposes, aseptic wound dressing, medical devices and others [31].
Hydrogels can provide a loose, porous structure and hydrated environment for culture cells, which, coupled with their resistance to disbanding, improves their fitness for different applications in emerging biomedical fields such as bio-sensing, drug delivery, tissue engineering, wound dressing, etc. [32,33,34].
Absorption and adsorption. Various ‘‘sorption’’ approaches (in the large sense of the definition) exist involving physical, chemical and biological interaction, and their combinations. Production of porous materials with high efficiency, selectivity, the ability to be reused multiple time, stability (better biodegradation) and cost-efficient production processes are important criteria in research, development and innovation in this field of gels science.
Non-modified cellulose materials have been traditionally used for absorption and adsorption purposes, however, their sorption capacity and selectivity are rather poor because of their intrinsic properties. To overcome the problem, cellulose derivatives are good quality candidates to be employed for sorption processes, in their native form or chemically modified (esterification, etherification, grafting of different moieties) to improve the desired properties for wastewaters, oil and organic fluid/solvents absorption, filtration, separation, precipitation, ion exchange, etc. [35,36].

5. Research, Development and Innovation in Cellulose-Based Gels

Cellulose-based gels research, development and innovation bring together various disciplines—chemistry, physics, materials science, environmental science, process engineering and medicine—to provide solutions for the development of innovative formulations and advanced materials with predictable components and controlled properties.
A survey of literature (Section 2, Section 3 and Section 4), previous and ongoing international research projects (as seen in Table 2) and recent patents (as seen in Table 3) on cellulose-based gels, both aerogels and hydrogels, reveals an important and prospective direction for their development—smart materials, such as biosensors, conducting electrolytes, printed electronics, etc. Known, traditional applications in pharmaceutical, medicine, the environment, and insulation, already participate in sustainable bio-economy and biorefinery approaches by obtaining specific products from natural polymer raw materials.
Fundamental and applied research on cellulose gels should be conducted to reveal the connection between cellulose chemistry and specific properties/abilities for specialized applications. Fundamental research involves the study of different forms of cellulose raw materials (native cellulose, cellulose fibers, cellulose derivatives, nanocellulose, nanofibers, nanofibrillated cellulose, etc.) and gel formation from them, while applied research consists of the development of gels with advanced desired properties.
Table 3 includes patents found in the Google Patent Database related to cellulose gels–aerogels and hydrogels from many different countries. The applications from the USA, China and Japan dominate the cellulose-based gels patents, but WIPO patents, European patents, Canadian and South Korean applications are also present. There are many cases in which the inventors came from different countries to those in which the application is filed, especially in the case of US patent applications.
The patents in cellulosic gels can be grouped into two categories: those involving gel synthesis approaches and those in related science and industrial applications. The main methods of gel manufacturing are chemical processes, followed by physical processes. Many preparation process details and related equipment are thought to be vital secrets by their inventors, so the information is very scarce, increasing the chances that patents in the field will. Patents on applications, improvements in performance and new materials will provide new means for innovative methods, devices and procedures and lead to new fields of research that will promote new frontlines in gel science. Preferred top tier domains, based on gels’ chemical, physical and mechanical properties, are conductive materials, pharmaceutical formulation, antiseptic applicator, smart packaging, magnetic composites, energy storage, etc.
Cellulose-based gels science and technology emerged decades ago, becoming scientifically relevant due to their low density, high specific area, non-toxicity and insulating properties. Today they are still used in various innovative materials because they provide possibilities for many new frontlines in today’s nanocellulose and nano-cellulose technology research, development and innovation [86].
Cellulose-based technology is truly multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary as it bridges many science and technology fields. Research projects and patents filed relating to cellulosic gels have increased rapidly, and this article only has cited a small part of them. The international research projects mentioned in this paper cover the development of numerous functional materials from cellulose, while the patents referred to in this paper cover a broad range of applications.
The main conclusion from research projects and patent applications is that the production of cellulose-based gels and their usefulness in diverse applications is an emerging area of interest for researchers and investors. We believe that more and more research projects and patents on cellulose-based gels will be published in the near future. However, there are still many challenges to overcome in order to improve industrial production, and scaling up production beyond the laboratory phase is absolutely necessary.

6. Concluding Remarks and Future Directions

Despite the acclaimed benefits and many gains and improvements, the large-scale, commercial production of cellulose-based gels still faces numerous and great challenges. Nevertheless, their technology readiness level (TRL) for the majority of the applications is still very low, despite the acclaimed successes achieved at the laboratory scale. More efforts should be made to increase the efficiency of raw materials processing and manufacturing processes. Furthermore, to advance the use of cellulose-based gels in new raw materials and novel extraction methods, improvements need to be made to reduce their costs. Moreover, specific equipment is needed to improve the technical feasibility and the efficiency of producing nano-scale cellulose needed in large quantities. The development of new products and processes needs to be achieved for the thorough utilization of components and to improve the entire process and the product economy. Following the joint efforts of researchers and stakeholders, it is reasonable to expect that cellulose-based gels will become an important material in meeting the ever-increasing property requirements.
It is clear that cellulose chemistry in gel formulation is fundamentally important for property shaping and for generating new functionalities. A profound understanding of cellulose chemistry in controlling the properties and applications is growing from studies of polymer and macromolecular chemistry; carbohydrate and polysaccharides chemistry; pulp and paper chemistry; and technology.
The accumulated knowledge in the field, even though it is not fully understood, will be valuable for researchers to continually design and fabricate novel gel formulations in a balanced manner. This, in turn, will allow further experimentation to improve our understanding of the roles of cellulose chemistry in rethinking the functionalities of cellulose-based gels and how to engineer new ones.
The future of cellulose-based gels appears to be bright and promises to be brighter because of the current attention on renewable raw materials, nontoxicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, low costs and reducing our dependence on fossil raw materials to help reduce GHG emissions. Positive changes happen by starting with sustainable product development goals in all fields: technological, material, energy and economical, to devise alternative approaches to both traditional and value-added products and applications.
We are confident that, as additional modern and advanced techniques are used to open up new avenues for functional materials, we will see the materialization of many new products based on cellulose’s outstanding properties, accomplished through sustainable management essential for the benefit of everyone: local communities, businesses and the environment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, B.-M.T., D.B. and I.V.; writing—original draft preparation B.-M.T., D.B. and I.V., writing—review and editing B.-M.T., D.B. and I.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their most sincere gratitude to Kristen He, who at every stage of this work devoted her time to give support, confidence and hope that we are on the right track and that this is a good solution.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

The nomenclature used to describe observations of cellulose-based gels, aerogels and hydrogels often varies considerably among researchers, laboratories, articles and textbooks in the fields of wood/cellulose science and technology. Standard scientific, technical and chemical dictionaries often differ in their definitions of commonly used term in gel material research. This lack of a common terminology leads to misunderstanding and ambiguity when communicating scientific findings, and can also be a particular drawback for some or a dishonest benefit for others in submitting manuscripts to journals worldwide. Therefore, there is a recognized need for a universal nomenclature to be used when describing such observations and for this, the current review used the terms defined according to IUPAC Gold Book [1] and current terminology in polymer chemistry [2]. Other alternative definitions or terms found in the literature, such as aerocellulose, bio-aerogel, all-cellulosegels, xerogels and cryogels, although correct in their meaning, were not used.
aquagel = hydrogel in which the network component is a colloidal network.
aerogel = gel comprised of a microporous solid in which the dispersed phase is a gas.
Note:
Microporous silica, microporous glass and zeolites are common examples of aerogels.
gel = non-fluid colloidal network or polymer network that is expanded throughout its whole volume by a fluid.
Notes:
1. A gel has a finite, usually rather small, yield stress.
2. A gel can contain:
(a)
a covalent polymer network, e.g., a network formed by crosslinking polymer chains or by non-linear polymerization;
(b)
a polymer network formed through the physical aggregation of polymer chains, caused by hydrogen bonds, crystallization, helix formation, complexation, etc., that results in regions of local order acting as the network junction points. The resulting swollen network may be termed a thermoreversible gel if the regions of local order are thermally reversible;
(c)
a polymer network formed through glassy junction points, e.g., one based on block copolymers. If the junction points are thermally reversible glassy domains, the resulting swollen network may also be termed a thermoreversible gel;
(d)
lamellar structures including mesophases, e.g., soap gels, phospholipids and clays;
(e)
particulate disordered structures, e.g., a flocculent precipitate usually consisting of particles with large geometrical anisotropy, such as in V2O5 gels and globular or fibrillar protein gels.
3. Corrected from the previous definition where the definition is via the property identified in Note 1 (above) rather than of the structural characteristics that describe a gel.
hydrogel = gel in which the swelling agent is water.
Notes:
1. The network component of a hydrogel is usually a polymer network.
2. A hydrogel in which the network component is a colloidal network may be referred to as an aquagel.

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  64. Marie, E.; Vitali, P. Biodegradable Single-Phase Cohesive Hydrogel. CN101925348B, 4 December 2013. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/CN101925348B (accessed on 25 June 2022).
  65. Thielemans, W.A.W.I.; Davies, R. Cellulose Nanoparticle Aerogels, Hydrogels and Organogels. US20130018112A1, 17 January 2013. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/US20130018112A1 (accessed on 25 June 2022).
  66. Zhang, H.; Xing, C.; Chen, S. Cellulose/Black Phosphorus Nanosheet Composite Hydrogel and Preparation Method Thereof. CN107936266B, 26 October 2021. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/CN107936266B (accessed on 25 June 2022).
  67. Zhang, H.; Xing, C.; Chen, S. Cellulose/Two-Dimensional Layered Material Composite Hydrogel and Preparation Method Therefor. WO2019095751A1, 23 May 2019. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2019095751A1 (accessed on 25 June 2022).
  68. Abidi, N.; Hu, Y. Cotton Fiber Dissolution and Regeneration and 3D Printing of Cellulose-Based Conductive Composites. US10311993B2, 4 June 2019. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/US10311993B2 (accessed on 25 June 2022).
  69. Cai, J.; Li, K.; Zhao, D.; Zhang, L. It Is a Kind of Based on the Dual Network Cellulose Gel-Based Material Being Chemically and Physically Crosslinked. CN104448396B, 16 June 2017. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/CN104448396B (accessed on 25 June 2022).
  70. Yano, S.; Sawaguchi, T.; Hagihara, S.; Maeda, H.; Nakajima, E.; Sasaki, I. Lithium-Ion Conductive Material Using Bacterial Cellulose Organic Gel, Lithium-Ion Battery and Bacterial Cellulose Airgel Using the Same. JP5110462B2, 26 December 2012. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/JP5110462B2 (accessed on 25 June 2022).
  71. Kim, C.-y.; Go, E.-b. Manufacturing Method of Cellulose Aerogel Membrane. KR101494641B1, 24 February 2015. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/KR101494641B1 (accessed on 25 June 2022).
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Gels 08 00497 g001 550
Figure 1. Scanning electron microscopy of plant cell walls at different magnifications. (a) General view of softwood fibers (magnification 500×). (b) Broken ends of softwood fibers (magnification 2500×). (c) Cellular elements in rapeseed pulp (magnification 550×). (d) Fibers in rapeseed pulp (magnification 1000×). (e) Perforations in corn fibers (magnification 500×). (f) Fibers in corn pulp (magnification 1500×).
Figure 1. Scanning electron microscopy of plant cell walls at different magnifications. (a) General view of softwood fibers (magnification 500×). (b) Broken ends of softwood fibers (magnification 2500×). (c) Cellular elements in rapeseed pulp (magnification 550×). (d) Fibers in rapeseed pulp (magnification 1000×). (e) Perforations in corn fibers (magnification 500×). (f) Fibers in corn pulp (magnification 1500×).
Gels 08 00497 g001
Gels 08 00497 g002 550
Figure 2. Scanning electron micrographs of gels derived from cellulose-based materials–kraft softwood fibers. (a) Magnification 250×. (b) Magnification 500×. (c) Magnification 1000×. (d) Magnification 2500×.
Figure 2. Scanning electron micrographs of gels derived from cellulose-based materials–kraft softwood fibers. (a) Magnification 250×. (b) Magnification 500×. (c) Magnification 1000×. (d) Magnification 2500×.
Gels 08 00497 g002
Table
Table 1. Properties/characteristics of the final produced aerogels and hydrogels.
Table 1. Properties/characteristics of the final produced aerogels and hydrogels.
CategoryPropertyCharacteristics
Cellulose-based
gels		ChemicalRadiation resistance, sunlight and UV resistance, weather (temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure) resistance, recyclability
PhysicalSurface topology, texture, specific heat, density/porosity,
thermal expansion, surface roughness, electrical conductivity, dielectric constant, thermal stability, color and esthetic
BiologicalToxicity, biodegradability, biostability
Mechanical/structuralMechanical strength, Shear modulus, elastic modulus,
fatigue strength, impact strength, creep resistance,
yield strength, elongation to break,
TechnicalFabrication costs, packaging, reproducibility,
product quality, safety, life-cycle analysis
Table
Table 2. International research projects on cellulose-based aerogels and hydrogels.
Table 2. International research projects on cellulose-based aerogels and hydrogels.
AcronymProject NameCellulose-Based MoleculeImplementation DatesCoordinatorFunding ProgrammeReferences
--Polysaccharide upgrading via chemical and enzymatic modificationsCellulose1 December 1997–30 November 1999University of Rome “La Sapienza”, ItalyFP4-TMR-Specific research and technological development programme in the field of the training and mobility of researchers, 1994–1998[37]
--The development of micro-biosensors for monitoring hazardous gases in the environmentHydroxyethyl cellulose gel1 November 1992–31 July 1995University of Ioannina,
Greece		FP3-ENV 1C-Specific research and technological development programme (EEC) in the field of the environment, 1990–1994[38]
--Aerocellulose and its carbon counterparts—porous, multifunctional nanomaterials from renewable resourcesCellulose1 January 2004–31 December 2006Lenzing Aktiengesellschaft, AustriaFP6-NMP-Nanotechnologies and nanosciences
NMP-2002-3.4.2.3-2-New knowledge-based higher performance materials for macro-scale applications		[39]
AEROCOINSAerogel-Based Composite/Hybrid Nanomaterials for Cost-Effective Building Super-Insulation SystemsNanofibrillated
cellulose		16 June 2011–15 June 2015Fundacion Tecnalia Research & Innovation, SpainFP7-NMP-EeB.NMP.2010-1-New nanotechnology-based high-performance insulation systems for energy efficiency[40]
AERoGELSCOST CA18125-Advanced Engineering and Research of aeroGels for Environment and Life SciencesCellulose30 April 2019–26 February 2023Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, SpainCOST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) Action 2018[41]
APACHEActive & intelligent Packaging materials and display cases as a tool for preventive conservation of Cultural HeritageNanocellulose1 January 2019–30 June 2022Consorzio Interuniversitario Perlo Sviluppo Dei Sistemi A Grande Interfase, ItalyH2020-EU.2.1.3.-INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP-NMBP-33-2018-Innovative and affordable solutions for the preventive conservation of cultural heritage[42]
BET-EUMaterials Synergy Integration for a Better EuropeNanocellulose1 January 2016–31 December 2018Uninova-Instituto De Desenvolvimento De Novas Tecnologias–Associacao, PortugalH2020-TWINN-2015-Twinning[43]
BioELCellBioproducts Engineered from Lignocelluloses: from plants and upcycling to next-generation materialsCellulose nanofibers1 August 2018–31 July 2023Aalto Korkeakoulusaatio SR, FinlandH2020-EU.1.1.-EXCELLENT
SCIENCE-
ERC-2017-ADG-ERC Advanced Grant		[44]
BIOGELEngineering responsive and biomimetic hydrogels for biomedical therapeutic and diagnostic applicationsNanocellulose1 January 2015–31 December 2018DWI Leibniz-Institut Fur Interaktive Materialien Ev, GermanyH2020-EU.1.3.1.-MSCA-ITN-2014-ETN-Marie Skłodowska-Curie Innovative Training Networks[45]
BioMicroGelsInnovative environmentally-benign wastewater treatment reagents offering a step change in efficiency in the cleaning of water from oils and metal ions and in liquidation of emergency oil spillsCellulose1 August 2016–31 December 2016BMG Intepco LTD, United KingdomH2020–MEInst-02- 2016-2017-Accelerating the uptake of nanotechnologies advanced materials or advanced manufacturing and processing technologies by SMEs[46]
BIOSICBiopolymer-based Single-Ion Conducting Gel Polymer Electrolytes for Highly Performant and more Sustainable BatteriesCellulose1 September 2021–1 October 2023Max–Planck-Gesellschaft Zur Forderung Der Wissenschaften EvGermanyH2020-EU.1.3.-EXCELLENT
SCIENCE-Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions		[47]
DRIVENField-driven materials for functions, dissipation, and mimicking Pavlovian adaptationMethylcellulose/Cellulose Nanocrystal1 October 2017–30 September 2022Aalto Korkeakoulusaatio SR
Finland		H2020-EU.1.1.-EXCELLENT
SCIENCE -
ERC-2016-ADG-ERC Advanced Grant		[48]
INNPAPERInnovative and Smart Printed Electronics based on Multifunctionalized Paper: from Smart Labelling to Point of Care BioplatformsNanofibrillated Cellulose1 January 2018–31 December 2021Fundacion CIDETEC,
Spain		H2020-EU.2.1.2.-INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP-PILOTS-05-2017-Paper-based electronics[49]
H-HouseHealthier Life with Eco-innovative Components for Housing ConstructionsCellulose1 September 2013–31 August 2017RISE CBI Betonginstitutet
AB, Sweden		FP7-NMP-EeB.NMP.2013-2-Safe, energy-efficient and affordable new eco-innovative materials for building envelopes and/or partitions to provide a healthier indoor environment[50]
MAEROSTRUCMulticomponent Aerogels with Tailored Nano-, Micro- MacrostructureMicrocrystalline cellulose1 March 2017–28 February 2022Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universitaet
Hannover, Germany		H2020-EU.1.1.-EXCELLENT
SCIENCE-
ERC-2016-STG-ERC Starting Grant		[51]
NanoHybridsNew generation of nanoporous organic and hybrid aerogels for industrial applications: from the lab to pilot scale productionCellulose1 November 2015–30 April 2019Technische Universitat Hamburg, GermanyH2020–NMP–PILOTS-2015-Manufacturing and control of nanoporous materials[52]
NanoTextSurfNanotextured surfaces for membranes, protective textiles, friction pads and abrasive materialsCellulose nanofibrils1 November 2017–30 November 2020Teknologian Tutkimuskeskus Vtt OY, FinlandH2020-EU.2.1.2.-INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP-PILOTS-03-2017-Pilot lines for manufacturing of nanotextured surfaces with mechanically enhanced properties[53]
NewFUNNew era of printed paper electronics based on advanced functional celluloseCellulose nanocrystals1 September 2015–31 May 2021NOVA ID FCT-Associacao Para A Inovacao E Desenvolvimento Da FCT, PortugalH2020-EU.1.1.-EXCELLENT
SCIENCE-ERC-StG-2014-ERC Starting Grant		[54]
PlantEmulGelEmulsions in Plant-based Edible Cellulose Microfibril Gels: Structure, Texture and StabilityCellulose microfibril Gel1 December 2018–30 November 2020Unilever Innovation Centre Wageningen,
Netherlands		H2020-EU.1.3-EXCELLENT
SCIENCE-Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions		[55]
PlantOleogelsPlant Particle-based Hybrid Bicontinuous OleogelsMicro fibrillated cellulose1 November 2018–31 October 2020Unilever Innovation Centre Wageningen,
Netherlands		H2020-EU.1.3-EXCELLENT
SCIENCE-Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions		[56]
SAMSoft Artificial MusclesCellulose nanocrystals1 March 2021–28 February 2023Universite de Fribourg, SwitzerlandH2020-EU.1.3.-EXCELLENT
SCIENCE-Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions		[57]
SYNERGYSymbiosis for energy harvesting concepts for smart platforms on foilsMicrocrystalline cellulose1 October 2020–30 September 2023UNINOVA-Instituto De Desenvolvimento De Novas Tecnologias-Associacao, PortugalH2020-EU.4.b.-WIDESPREAD-05-2020-Twinning[58]
WEARSENSNANOContinuous monitoring of hypothermia in elderly people by the novel integrated wearable sensor system based on cellulose hydrogel and metallic nanowiresCellulose1 June 2021–31 May 2023Aalto Korkeakoulusaatio SR, FinlandH2020-EU.1.3.2.-MSCA-IF-2020-Individual Fellowships[59]
WoodNanoTechWood Nanotechnology for Multifunctional StructuresNanocellulose1 September 2017–31 August 2022Kungliga Tekniska Hoegskolan, SwedenH2020-EU.1.1.-EXCELLENT
SCIENCE-ERC-2016-ADG-ERC Advanced Grant		[60]
Table
Table 3. Recent selected patents on cellulose-based aerogels and hydrogels.
Table 3. Recent selected patents on cellulose-based aerogels and hydrogels.
Reference TitlePublication NumberRaw MaterialInventors Publication DateReferences
A kind of preparation method of cellulose aerogels and its hybrid aerogelCN105017555B
China		Cellulose Yu Jian, Ma Shurong, Mi Qinyong, Zhang Jun (Institute of Chemistry of CAS)12 October 2018[61]
A kind of preparation method of nanofibrils cellulose aerogel of ultralight, hydrophobic, high oil absorbencyCN103756006B
China		Nanofibrils celluloseLi Jian, Wancai Chao, Sun Qingfeng, Lu Yun, Gao Li, Kun Gan Wentao (Northeast Forestry University)20 January 2016[62]
A kind of preparation method of the elastic aerogel of multifunctional fiber elementCN105566673B
China		CelluloseZhang Junping, Li Lingxiao, Li Bucheng (Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics LICP of CAS)2 November 2018[63]
Biodegradable single-phase cohesive hydrogelCN101925348B
China		Cellulose and cellulose derivativeEstelle Marie, Pirongueil Vitali (Laboratoires Vivacy SAS)4 December 2013[64]
Cellulose nanoparticle aerogels, hydrogels and organogelsUS20130018112A1
United States		Cellulose nanoparticleWim Albert Wilfried Irene Thielemans, Rebecca Davies (University of Nottingham)17 January 2013[65]
Cellulose/black phosphorus nanosheet composite hydrogel and preparation method thereofCN107936266B
China		CelluloseZhang Han, Xing Chenyang, Chen Shiyou (Shenzhen University)26 October 2021[66]
Cellulose/two-dimensional layered material composite hydrogel and preparation method thereforWO2019095751A1
WIPO		CelluloseZhang Han, Xing Chenyang, Chen Shiyou23 May 2019[67]
Cotton fiber dissolution and regeneration and 3D printing of cellulose-based conductive compositesUS10311993B2
United States		Microcrystalline cellulose.Noureddine Abidi, Yang Hu (Texas Tech University System)4 June 2019[68]
It is a kind of based on the dual network cellulose gel-based material being chemically and physically crosslinkedCN104448396B, ChinaCelluloseCai Jie, Li Kai, Zhao Dan, Zhang Lina16 June 2017[69]
Lithium-ion conductive material using bacterial cellulose organic gel, lithium-ion battery and bacterial cellulose airgel using the sameJP5110462B2,
Japan		Bacterial celluloseShoichiro Yano, Takashi Sawaguchi, Shunki Hagihara, Hideaki Maeda, Ei Nakajima, Ichihiro Sasaki26 December 2012[70]
Manufacturing method of cellulose aerogel membraneKR101494641B1
South Korea		CelluloseKim Chang-yeol, Go Eun-byeol24 February 2015[71]
Medical hydrogelCN110072567B, ChinaNanofibrillar celluloseK. Luko M. Nopening (UPM Kymmene Oy)12 April 2022[72]
Method and apparatus for processing fibril cellulose and fibril cellulose productEP2815026B1,
European Patent Office		Nanofibrillar celluloseAntti Laukkanen, Markus Nuopponen (UPM Kymmene Oy)16 June 2021[73]
Method for preparing amorphous cellulose aerogel with ionic liquidCN102443188B
China		CelluloseLu Yun Sun Qingfeng Liu Yixing Yu Haipeng Yang Dongjiang (Northeast Forestry University)13 March 2013[74]
Method for processing nanofibrillar celluloseCA2824125C, CanadaNanofibrillar celluloseAntti Laukkanen, Jan-Erik Teirfolk, Markus Nuopponen (UPM Kymmene Oy)7 May 2019[75]
Method for producing a gel-based composite materialJP6224175B2,
Japan		Cellulose fibersPatrick A, Sea, Gain Michelle, Cienkar Lambsey, Subra Manian Joachim, Ciel Kotup1 November 2017[76]
Method for producing nanofibril cellulose gelJP6698236B1,
Japan		Nanofibril Cellulosic fibersPatrick, A, Sea, Gain Joachim, Ciel Kotup Daniel, Gantenbain Michel Cienker27 May 2020[77]
Method for producing nanofibrillar cellulose and nanofibrillar cellulose productUS11274396B2
United States		Nanofibrillar celluloseMarkus Nuopponen, Juha Tamper, Isko Kajanto (UPM Kymmene Oy)15 March 2022[78]
Methods for Making Structured Materials Using Nanofibril Cellulose GelJP7033105B2,
Japan		Cellulose fibersPatrick A, Sea, Gain Michelle, Cienkar Lambsey, Subra Manian Joachim, Ciel Kotup9 March 2022[79]
Nanofibrillar cellulose compositionUS10729804B2
United States		Nanofibrillar celluloseMarjo Yliperttula, Patrick Lauren, Petter Somersalo, Yanru Lou (UPM Kymmene Oy)4 August 2020[80]
Nanofibrillar polysaccharide for use in the control and prevention of contraction and scarringEP2958599B1
European Patent Office		Nanofibrillar celluloseAntti Laukkanen, Esko Kankuri, Kristo Nuuutila (UPM Kymmene Oy)16 November 2016[81]
Porous cellulose gel, method for producing the same, and use thereofUS9446382B2,
United States		Crosslinked spherical crystalline cellulose particlesYasuto Umeda, Yasuo Matsumoto, Masami Shiina, Masami Todokoro, Yoshihiro Matsumoto (JNC Corp)20 September 2016[82]
Regenerated cellulose film, functional film and preparation method thereofEP3064534B1
European Patent Office		Regenerated celluloseJun Zhang, Xiaoyu Zhang, Jian Yu, Ruifeng Li, Jin Wu, Yugang GAO, Jinming Zhang, Jinjiang QIU (Inst of Chemistry Chinese Academic of Sciences, Institute of Chemistry of CAS)20 October 2021[83]
Transparent cellulose hydrogel and production process thereofUS5962005A
United States		Regenerated celluloseHiroshi Saga, Hidenao Saito (Rengo Co Ltd.)10 May 1999[84]
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Tofanica, B.-M.; Belosinschi, D.; Volf, I. Gels, Aerogels and Hydrogels: A Challenge for the Cellulose-Based Product Industries. Gels 2022, 8, 497. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080497

AMA Style

Tofanica B-M, Belosinschi D, Volf I. Gels, Aerogels and Hydrogels: A Challenge for the Cellulose-Based Product Industries. Gels. 2022; 8(8):497. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080497

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tofanica, Bogdan-Marian, Dan Belosinschi, and Irina Volf. 2022. "Gels, Aerogels and Hydrogels: A Challenge for the Cellulose-Based Product Industries" Gels 8, no. 8: 497. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080497

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