Gels

Open AccessArticle

Texturing of Soy Yoghurt Alternatives: Pectin Microgel Particles Serve as Inactive Fillers and Weaken the Soy Protein Gel Structure

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Gabriela Itziar Saavedra Isusi

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Johannes Marburger

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Nils Lohner

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Ulrike S. van der Schaaf

Gels 2023, 9(6), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060473 (registering DOI) - 08 Jun 2023

Abstract

Soy-based yoghurt alternatives were highly requested by consumers over the last few years. However, their texture does not always fulfil consumers’ demands as such yoghurt alternatives are often perceived as too firm or too soft, sandy, or fibrous. In order to improve the [...] Read more.

Soy-based yoghurt alternatives were highly requested by consumers over the last few years. However, their texture does not always fulfil consumers’ demands as such yoghurt alternatives are often perceived as too firm or too soft, sandy, or fibrous. In order to improve the texture, fibres, for example, in the form of microgel particles (MGP), can be added to the soy matrix. MGP are expected to interact with soy proteins, creating different microstructures and, thus, different gel properties after fermentation. In this study, pectin-based MGP were added in different sizes and concentrations, and the soy gel properties after fermentation were characterised. It was found that the addition of 1 wt.% MGP influenced neither the flow behaviour nor the tribological/lubrication properties of the soy matrix, regardless of the MGP size. However, at higher MGP concentrations (3 and 5 wt.%), the viscosity and yield stress were reduced, the gel strength and cross-linking density decreased, and the water-holding capacity was reduced. At 5 wt.%, strong and visible phase separation occurred. Thus, it can be concluded that apple pectin-based MGP serve as inactive fillers in fermented soy protein matrices. They can, therefore, be used to weaken the gel matrix purposely to create novel microstructures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels for Plant-Based Food Applications)

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Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Sheng et al. Antibacterial and Angiogenic Poly(ionic liquid) Hydrogels. Gels 2022, 8, 476

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060472 (registering DOI) - 08 Jun 2023

Abstract

In the original publication [...] Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Construction of Pt@BiFeO₃ Xerogel-Supported O-g-C₃N₄ Heterojunction System for Enhanced Visible-Light Activity towards Photocatalytic Degradation of Rhodamine B

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Abubakar Usman Katsina

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Sonia Mihai

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Dănuţa Matei

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Diana-Luciana Cursaru

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Raluca Şomoghi

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Cristina Lavinia Nistor

Gels 2023, 9(6), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060471 - 08 Jun 2023

Abstract

Synthetic organic pigments from the direct discharge of textile effluents are considered as colossal global concern and attract the attention of scholars. The efficient construction of heterojunction systems involving precious metal co-catalysis is an effective strategy for obtaining highly efficient photocatalytic materials. Herein, [...] Read more.

Synthetic organic pigments from the direct discharge of textile effluents are considered as colossal global concern and attract the attention of scholars. The efficient construction of heterojunction systems involving precious metal co-catalysis is an effective strategy for obtaining highly efficient photocatalytic materials. Herein, we report the construction of a Pt-doped BiFeO₃/O-g-C₃N₄ (Pt@BFO/O-CN) S-scheme heterojunction system for photocatalytic degradation of aqueous rhodamine B (RhB) under visible-light irradiation. The photocatalytic performances of Pt@BFO/O-CN and BFO/O-CN composites and pristine BiFeO₃ and O-g-C₃N₄ were compared, and the photocatalytic process of the Pt@BFO/O-CN system was optimized. The results exhibit that the S-scheme Pt@BFO/O-CN heterojunction has superior photocatalytic performance compared to its fellow catalysts, which is due to the asymmetric nature of the as-constructed heterojunction. The as-constructed Pt@BFO/O-CN heterojunction reveals high performance in photocatalytic degradation of RhB with a degradation efficiency of 100% achieved after 50 min of visible-light irradiation. The photodegradation fitted well with pseudo-first-order kinetics proceeding with a rate constant of 4.63 × 10⁻² min⁻¹. The radical trapping test reveals that h⁺ and ^•O₂⁻ take the leading role in the reaction, while the stability test reveals a 98% efficiency after the fourth cycle. As established from various interpretations, the considerably enhanced photocatalytic performance of the heterojunction system can be attributed to the promoted charge carrier separation and transfer of photoexcited carriers, as well as the strong photo-redox ability established. Hence, the S-scheme Pt@BFO/O-CN heterojunction is a good candidate in the treatment of industrial wastewater for the mineralization of organic micropollutants, which pose a grievous threat to the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Gel Technology in Food Industry and Environmental Engineering)

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Open AccessArticle

Conceptualization and Investigation of Multicomponent Polymer Networks as Prospective Corticosteroid Carriers

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060470 - 07 Jun 2023

Abstract

Dexamethasone (DXM) is a highly potent and long-acting synthetic glucocorticoid with anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, and immunosuppressive effects. However, the systemic application of DXM can cause undesirable side effects: sleep disorders, nervousness, heart rhythm disorders, heart attack, and others. In the present study, multicomponent polymer [...] Read more.

Dexamethasone (DXM) is a highly potent and long-acting synthetic glucocorticoid with anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, and immunosuppressive effects. However, the systemic application of DXM can cause undesirable side effects: sleep disorders, nervousness, heart rhythm disorders, heart attack, and others. In the present study, multicomponent polymer networks were developed as potential new platforms for the dermal application of dexamethasone sodium phosphate (DSP). First, a copolymer network (CPN) comprising hydrophilic segments of different chemical structures was synthesized by applying redox polymerization of dimethyl acrylamide onto poly(ethylene glycol) in the presence of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) as a crosslinker. On this basis, an interpenetrating polymer network structure (IPN) was obtained by introducing a second network of PEGDA-crosslinked poly(N-isopropylacrylamide). Multicomponent networks obtained were characterized by FTIR, TGA, and swelling kinetics in different solvents. Both CPN and IPN showed a high swelling degree in aqueous media (up to 1800 and 1200%, respectively), reaching the equilibrium swelling within 24 h. Additionally, IPN showed temperature-responsive swelling in an aqueous solution as the equilibrium swelling degree decreased considerably with an increase in the temperature. In order to evaluate the networks’ potential as drug carriers, swelling in DSP aqueous solutions of varied concentration was investigated. It was established that the amount of encapsulated DSP could be easily controlled by the concentration of drug aqueous solution. In vitro DSP release was studied in buffer solution (BS) with pH 7.4 at 37 °C. The results obtained during DSP loading and release experiments proved the feasibility of the developed multicomponent hydrophilic polymer networks as effective platforms for potential dermal application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Hydrogels for Controlled Drug Delivery)

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Open AccessReview

Rheological Considerations of Pharmaceutical Formulations: Focus on Viscoelasticity

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Lívia Budai

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Marianna Budai

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Zsófia Edit Fülöpné Pápay

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Zsófia Vilimi

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István Antal

Gels 2023, 9(6), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060469 - 07 Jun 2023

Abstract

Controlling rheological properties offers the opportunity to gain insight into the physical characteristics, structure, stability and drug release rate of formulations. To better understand the physical properties of hydrogels, not only rotational but also oscillatory experiments should be performed. Viscoelastic properties, including elastic [...] Read more.

Controlling rheological properties offers the opportunity to gain insight into the physical characteristics, structure, stability and drug release rate of formulations. To better understand the physical properties of hydrogels, not only rotational but also oscillatory experiments should be performed. Viscoelastic properties, including elastic and viscous properties, are measured using oscillatory rheology. The gel strength and elasticity of hydrogels are of great importance for pharmaceutical development as the application of viscoelastic preparations has considerably expanded in recent decades. Viscosupplementation, ophthalmic surgery and tissue engineering are just a few examples from the wide range of possible applications of viscoelastic hydrogels. Hyaluronic acid, alginate, gellan gum, pectin and chitosan are remarkable representatives of gelling agents that attract great attention applied in biomedical fields. This review provides a brief summary of rheological properties, highlighting the viscoelasticity of hydrogels with great potential in biomedicine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Hydrogel-Based Biomaterials)

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Open AccessArticle

Concentration Dependence of TiO₂ Nanoparticles in Carbon Xerogels on Adsorption–Photodegradation Applications

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Anam Safri

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Ashleigh Jane Fletcher

Gels 2023, 9(6), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060468 - 07 Jun 2023

Abstract

A suite of composite materials comprising carbon xerogel content and TiO₂ was synthesised via a modified sol–gel method. The textural, morphological, and optical properties of the composites were extensively characterised and correlated with the observed adsorption and photodegradation performances. The homogeneity and [...] Read more.

A suite of composite materials comprising carbon xerogel content and TiO₂ was synthesised via a modified sol–gel method. The textural, morphological, and optical properties of the composites were extensively characterised and correlated with the observed adsorption and photodegradation performances. The homogeneity and porous structure of the composites depended on the amount of TiO₂ deposited in the carbon xerogel. During polymerisation, Ti-O-C linkages were formed, which favoured the adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of the target methylene blue dye. Adsorption was deemed favourable, and most accurately fitted by the Sips model, exhibiting a maximum uptake of 209 mg g⁻¹ estimated for the sample containing 50% TiO₂. However, the synergistic effect of adsorption and photocatalytic degradation for each composite depended on the amount of TiO₂ deposited in the carbon xerogel. The dye degradation process for the composites with 50%, 70%, and 90% TiO₂ improved by 37%, 11%, and 2%, respectively, after exposure to visible light after adsorption. Repeated runs demonstrated over 80% of activity was retained after four cycles. Thus, this paper provides insight into the optimal amount of TiO₂ required within such composites for maximum removal efficiency via adsorption and visible light photocatalysis. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Robust, Fire-Retardant, and Water-Resistant Wood/Polyimide Composite Aerogels with a Hierarchical Pore Structure for Thermal Insulation

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060467 - 06 Jun 2023

Abstract

The use of energy-saving materials is an effective strategy for decreasing energy consumption and carbon emission. Wood is a type of biomass material with a natural hierarchical structure, which results in its high thermal insulation. It has been widely used in construction. However, [...] Read more.

The use of energy-saving materials is an effective strategy for decreasing energy consumption and carbon emission. Wood is a type of biomass material with a natural hierarchical structure, which results in its high thermal insulation. It has been widely used in construction. However, developing wood-based materials without flammability and dimensional instability is still a challenge. Herein, we developed a wood/polyimide composite aerogel with a well-preserved hierarchical pore structure and dense hydrogen bonds inside, resulting in its excellent chemical compatibility and strong interfacial interactions between its two components. This novel wood-based composite was fabricated by removing most hemicellulose and lignin from natural wood, followed by the fast impregnation using an ‘in situ gel’ process. The introduction of polyimide into delignified wood substantially improved its mechanical properties, with the compression resistance being improved by over five times. Notably, the thermal conductivity coefficient of the developed composite was approximately half that of natural wood. Furthermore, the composite exhibited excellent fire-retardancy, hydrophobicity, thermal insulation, and mechanical properties. This study provides a novel method for wood modification, which not only aids interfacial compatibility between wood and polyimide but also retains the properties of the two components. The developed composite can effectively reduce energy consumption, making it promising for practical and complex thermal insulation applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biopolymer Aerogels and Their Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Formulation and Characterization of Emulgel-Based Jelly Candy: A Preliminary Study on Nutraceutical Delivery

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Somali Dhal

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Anupam Pal

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Anna Gramza-Michalowska

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060466 - 06 Jun 2023

Abstract

The development of consumer-friendly nutraceutical dosage forms is highly important for greater acceptance. In this work, such dosage forms were prepared based on structured emulsions (emulgels), where the olive oil phase was filled within the pectin-based jelly candy. The emulgel-based candies were designed [...] Read more.

The development of consumer-friendly nutraceutical dosage forms is highly important for greater acceptance. In this work, such dosage forms were prepared based on structured emulsions (emulgels), where the olive oil phase was filled within the pectin-based jelly candy. The emulgel-based candies were designed as bi-modal carriers, where oil-soluble curcumin and water-soluble riboflavin were incorporated as the model nutraceuticals. Initially, emulsions were prepared by homogenizing varied concentrations (10% to 30% (w/w)) of olive oil in a 5% (w/w) pectin solution that contained sucrose and citric acid. Herein, pectin acted as a structuring agent-cum-stabilizer. Physico–chemical properties of the developed formulations were thoroughly analyzed. These studies revealed that olive oil interferes with the formation of polymer networks of pectin and the crystallization properties of sugar in candies. This was confirmed by performing FTIR spectroscopy and DSC studies. In vitro disintegration studies showed an insignificant difference in the disintegration behavior of candies, although olive oil concentration was varied. Riboflavin and curcumin were then incorporated into the jelly candy formulations to analyze whether the developed formulations could deliver both hydrophilic and hydrophobic nutraceutical agents. We found that the developed jelly candy formulations were capable of delivering both types of nutraceutical agents. The outcome of the present study may open new directions for designing and developing oral nutraceutical dosage forms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels of Fats and Oils for Food and Biomedical Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Towards Understanding Aerogels’ Efficiency for Oil Removal—A Principal Component Analysis Approach

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060465 - 06 Jun 2023

Abstract

In this study, our aim was to estimate the adsorption potential of three families of aerogels: nanocellulose (NC), chitosan (CS), and graphene (G) oxide-based aerogels. The emphasized efficiency to seek here concerns oil and organic contaminant removal. In order to achieve this goal, [...] Read more.

In this study, our aim was to estimate the adsorption potential of three families of aerogels: nanocellulose (NC), chitosan (CS), and graphene (G) oxide-based aerogels. The emphasized efficiency to seek here concerns oil and organic contaminant removal. In order to achieve this goal, principal component analysis (PCA) was used as a data mining tool. PCA showed hidden patterns that were not possible to seek by the bi-dimensional conventional perspective. In fact, higher total variance was scored in this study compared with previous findings (an increase of nearly 15%). Different approaches and data pre-treatments have provided different findings for PCA. When the whole dataset was taken into consideration, PCA was able to reveal the discrepancy between nanocellulose-based aerogel from one part and chitosan-based and graphene-based aerogels from another part. In order to overcome the bias yielded by the outliers and to probably increase the degree of representativeness, a separation of individuals was adopted. This approach allowed an increase in the total variance of the PCA approach from 64.02% (for the whole dataset) to 69.42% (outliers excluded dataset) and 79.82% (outliers only dataset). This reveals the effectiveness of the followed approach and the high bias yielded from the outliers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Gel Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Unveiling the Role of Capping Groups in Naphthalene N-Capped Dehydrodipeptide Hydrogels

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Helena Vilaça

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André Carvalho

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Tarsila Castro

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Elisabete M. S. Castanheira

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Loic Hilliou

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Ian Hamley

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Manuel Melle-Franco

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Paula M. T. Ferreira

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José A. Martins

Gels 2023, 9(6), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060464 - 06 Jun 2023

Abstract

Self-assembled peptide-based hydrogels are archetypical nanostructured materials with a plethora of foreseeable applications in nanomedicine and as biomaterials. N-protected di- and tri-peptides are effective minimalist (molecular) hydrogelators. Independent variation of the capping group, peptide sequence and side chain modifications allows a wide chemical [...] Read more.

Self-assembled peptide-based hydrogels are archetypical nanostructured materials with a plethora of foreseeable applications in nanomedicine and as biomaterials. N-protected di- and tri-peptides are effective minimalist (molecular) hydrogelators. Independent variation of the capping group, peptide sequence and side chain modifications allows a wide chemical space to be explored and hydrogel properties to be tuned. In this work, we report the synthesis of a focused library of dehydrodipeptides N-protected with 1-naphthoyl and 2-naphthylacetyl groups. The 2-naphthylacetyl group was extensively reported for preparation of peptide-based self-assembled hydrogels, whereas the 1-naphthaloyl group was largely overlooked, owing presumably to the lack of a methylene linker between the naphthalene aromatic ring and the peptide backbone. Interestingly, dehydrodipeptides N-capped with the 1-naphthyl moiety afford stronger gels, at lower concentrations, than the 2-naphthylacetyl-capped dehydrodipeptides. Fluorescence and circular dichroism spectroscopy showed that the self-assembly of the dehydrodipeptides is driven by intermolecular aromatic π–π stacking interactions. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the 1-naphthoyl group allows higher order aromatic π–π stacking of the peptide molecules than the 2-naphthylacetyl group, together with hydrogen bonding of the peptide scaffold. The nanostructure of the gel networks was studied by TEM and STEM microscopy and was found to correlate well with the elasticity of the gels. This study contributes to understanding the interplay between peptide and capping group structure on the formation of self-assembled low-molecular-weight peptide hydrogels. Moreover, the results presented here add the 1-naphthoyl group to the palette of capping groups available for the preparation of efficacious low-molecular-weight peptide-based hydrogels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Supramolecular Gels)

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Open AccessArticle

Drying Process of HPMC-Based Hard Capsules: Visual Experiment and Mathematical Modeling

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060463 - 05 Jun 2023

Abstract

Using plant-based polysaccharide gels to produce hard capsules is a novel application of this technology in the medicinal field, which has garnered significant attention. However, the current manufacturing technology, particularly the drying process, limits its industrialization. The work herein employed an advanced measuring [...] Read more.

Using plant-based polysaccharide gels to produce hard capsules is a novel application of this technology in the medicinal field, which has garnered significant attention. However, the current manufacturing technology, particularly the drying process, limits its industrialization. The work herein employed an advanced measuring technique and a modified mathematical model to get more insight into the drying process of the capsule. Low field magnetic resonance imaging (LF-MRI) technique is adopted to reveal the distribution of moisture content in the capsule during drying. Furthermore, a modified mathematical model is developed by considering the dynamic variation of the effective moisture diffusivity (D_eff) according to Fick’s second law, which enables accurate prediction of the moisture content of the capsule with a prediction accuracy of ±15%. The predicted D_eff ranges from 3 × 10⁻¹⁰ to 7 × 10⁻¹⁰ m²·s⁻¹, which has an irregular variation with a time extension. Moreover, as temperature increases or relative humidity decreases, there is an increased acceleration of moisture diffusion. The work provides a fundamental understanding of the drying process of the plant-based polysaccharide gel, which is crucial for enhancing the industrial preparation of the HPMC-based hard capsules. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Gel Processing and Engineering)

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Open AccessArticle

Innovative Wound Healing Hydrogel Containing Chicken Feather Keratin and Soy Isoflavone Genistein: In Vivo Studies

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Nilesh M. Mahajan

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Kalyani Wanaskar

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Nemat Ali

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Debarshi Kar Mahapatra

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Muzaffar Iqbal

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Abid R. Bhat

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Mohammed Kaleem

Gels 2023, 9(6), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060462 - 05 Jun 2023

Abstract

The current study was performed to isolate keratin from chicken feathers with an intention to develop a keratin–genistein wound-healing hydrogel, along with its in vivo analysis. Pre-formulation aspects were analysed by using FTIR; SEM; HPTLC, while gel was characterized for gel strength, viscosity, [...] Read more.

The current study was performed to isolate keratin from chicken feathers with an intention to develop a keratin–genistein wound-healing hydrogel, along with its in vivo analysis. Pre-formulation aspects were analysed by using FTIR; SEM; HPTLC, while gel was characterized for gel strength, viscosity, spreadability, drug content, etc. Additionally, an in vivo study along with biochemical factors against pro-inflammatory factors and histopathological studies were conducted to determine possible wound-healing and anti-inflammatory effects. Pre-formulation studies revealed the presence of amide bonds with region of dense fibrous keratin and an internal porous network in extracted keratin, which corresponds with standard keratin. Evaluation of optimised keratin–genistein hydrogel indicated the development of neutral, non-sticky hydrogel which spread evenly on the skin. In vivo studies in rats indicate higher degrees of wound-healing in combined hydrogel (94.65%) for a duration of 14 days as compared to an individual hydrogel formulation with the development of the epidermis and excessive proliferation of fibrous connective tissue indicating wound repair. Furthermore, the hydrogel inhibited the overexpression of IL-6 gene along with other pro-inflammatory factors, indicating its anti-inflammatory effects. In order to find out the possibility of closure of wounds and anti-inflammatory properties of the novel product, an in vivo investigation into the healing of wounds in laboratory animals was carried out through biochemical (ELISA and qRT-PCR) analyses against inflammatory markers (IL-2, IL-6, IL-1, IL-10, and COX-2) and histopathological (liver, skin, and the kidneys) investigations. Based on the results, we conclude that keratin–genistein hydrogel is a promising therapeutic molecule for the management of wound repair. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels)

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Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Whole-Cut Plant-Based Pork Meat and Its Quality Evaluation with Animal Meat

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060461 - 05 Jun 2023

Abstract

Low-moisture (20~40%) and high-moisture (40~80%) textured vegetable proteins (TVPs) can be used as important components of plant-based lean meat, while plant-based fat can be characterized by the formation of gels from polysaccharides, proteins, etc. In this study, three kinds of whole-cut plant-based pork [...] Read more.

Low-moisture (20~40%) and high-moisture (40~80%) textured vegetable proteins (TVPs) can be used as important components of plant-based lean meat, while plant-based fat can be characterized by the formation of gels from polysaccharides, proteins, etc. In this study, three kinds of whole-cut plant-based pork (PBP) were prepared based on the mixed gel system, which were from low-moisture TVP, high-moisture TVP, and their mixtures. The comparisons of these products with commercially available plant-based pork (C-PBP1 and C-PBP2) and animal pork meat (APM) were studied in terms of appearance, taste, and nutritional qualities. Results showed the color changes of PBPs after frying were similar to that of APM. The addition of high-moisture TVP would significantly improve hardness (3751.96~7297.21 g), springiness (0.84~0.89%), and chewiness (3162.44~6466.94 g) while also reducing the viscosity (3.89~10.56 g) of products. It was found that the use of high-moisture TVP led to a significant increase in water-holding capacity (WHC) from 150.25% to 161.01% compared with low-moisture TVP; however, oil-holding capacity (OHC) was reduced from 166.34% to 164.79%. Moreover, essential amino acids (EAAs), the essential amino acids index (EAAI), and biological value (BV) were significantly increased from 272.68 mg/g, 105.52, and 103.32 to 362.65 mg/g, 141.34, and 142.36, respectively, though in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) reduced from 51.67% to 43.68% due to the high-moisture TVP. Thus, the high-moisture TVP could help to improve the appearance, textural properties, WHC, and nutritional qualities of PBPs compared to animal meat, which was also better than low-moisture TVP. These findings should be useful for the application of TVP and gels in plant-based pork products to improve the taste and nutritional qualities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels for Plant-Based Food Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Influence of Persian Gum and Almond Gum on the Physicochemical Properties of Wheat Starch

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060460 - 03 Jun 2023

Abstract

In this study, the influence of different levels (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3% w/w) of Persian gum or almond gum were incorporated into wheat starch, and their influences on water absorption, freeze–thaw stability, microstructure, pasting, and textural properties were investigated. The [...] Read more.

In this study, the influence of different levels (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3% w/w) of Persian gum or almond gum were incorporated into wheat starch, and their influences on water absorption, freeze–thaw stability, microstructure, pasting, and textural properties were investigated. The SEM micrographs revealed that the addition of hydrocolloids to starch leads to the formation of denser gels with smaller pores. The water absorption of starch pastes was improved in the presence of gums, and samples containing 0.3% almond gum had the highest water absorption. The rapid visco analyzer (RVA) data showed that the incorporation of gums significantly affected the pasting properties by increasing the pasting time, pasting temperature, peak viscosity, final viscosity, and setback and decreasing breakdown. In all the pasting parameters, the changes caused by almond gum were more obvious. Based on TPA measurements, hydrocolloids were able to improve the textural properties of starch gels, such as firmness and gumminess but decreased the cohesiveness, and springiness was not affected by the incorporation of gums. Moreover, the freeze–thaw stability of starch was enhanced by the inclusion of gums, and almond gum exhibited better performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Gels: Properties and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Development of Natural Active Agent-Containing Porous Hydrogel Sheets with High Water Content for Wound Dressings

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Thanyaporn Pinthong

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Maytinee Yooyod

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Jinjutha Daengmankhong

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Nantaprapa Tuancharoensri

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060459 - 03 Jun 2023

Abstract

This work was concerned with the fabrication of a porous hydrogel system suitable for medium to heavy-exudating wounds where traditional hydrogels cannot be used. The hydrogels were based on 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propane sulfonic acid (AMPs). In order to produce the porous structure, additional components were [...] Read more.

This work was concerned with the fabrication of a porous hydrogel system suitable for medium to heavy-exudating wounds where traditional hydrogels cannot be used. The hydrogels were based on 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propane sulfonic acid (AMPs). In order to produce the porous structure, additional components were added (acid, blowing agent, foam stabilizer). Manuka honey (MH) was also incorporated at concentrations of 1 and 10% w/w. The hydrogel samples were characterized for morphology via scanning electron microscopy, mechanical rheology, swelling using a gravimetric method, surface absorption, and cell cytotoxicity. The results confirmed the formation of porous hydrogels (PH) with pore sizes ranging from ~50–110 µm. The swelling performance showed that the non-porous hydrogel (NPH) swelled to ~2000%, while PH weight increased ~5000%. Additionally, the use of a surface absorption technique showed that the PH absorbed 10 μL in <3000 ms, and NPH absorbed <1 μL over the same time. Incorporating MH the enhanced gel appearance and mechanical properties, including smaller pores and linear swelling. In summary, the PH produced in this study had excellent swelling performance with rapid absorption of surface liquid. Therefore, these materials have the potential to expand the applicability of hydrogels to a range of wound types, as they can both donate and absorb fluid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel-Based Novel Biomaterials: Achievements and Prospects)

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Open AccessArticle

Effect of UV Irradiation of Pre-Gel Solutions on the Formation of Collagen Gel Tubes

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060458 - 02 Jun 2023

Abstract

Hollow collagen gels are promising materials for drug/cell delivery systems to promote tissue regeneration because they may be able to function as carriers for these types of loads. Controlling the cavity size and swelling suppression is essential to expand the applications and improve [...] Read more.

Hollow collagen gels are promising materials for drug/cell delivery systems to promote tissue regeneration because they may be able to function as carriers for these types of loads. Controlling the cavity size and swelling suppression is essential to expand the applications and improve the usability of such gel-like systems. We investigated the effects of UV-treated collagen solutions as a pre-gel aqueous mixture on the formation and properties of the hollow collagen gels in terms of their preparation range limits, morphology, and swelling ratio. The UV treatment thickened the pre-gel solutions, which allowed hollowing at lower collagen concentrations. This treatment also prevents the over-swelling of the hollow collagen rods in PBS buffer solutions. The UV-treated collagen solutions provided a large lumen space in the prepared collagen hollow fiber rods with a limited swelling ratio, allowing vascular endothelial cells and ectodermal cells to be cultured separately in the outer and inner lumen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shaping and Structuring of Polymer Gels)

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Open AccessArticle

Formulation of Intranasal Mucoadhesive Thermotriggered In Situ Gel Containing Mirtazapine as an Antidepressant Drug

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Mohammed Ghazwani

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Rajalakshimi Vasudevan

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Geetha Kandasamy

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Naredla. Manusri

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Praveen Devanandan

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Ranadheer Chowdary Puvvada

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Vinoth Prabhu Veeramani

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Premalatha Paulsamy

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Krishnaraju Venkatesan

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Kumarappan Chidmabaram

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Rajeshri Dhurke

Gels 2023, 9(6), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060457 - 02 Jun 2023

Abstract

The purpose of the present work was to develop nanoemulsion-based formulations of mirtazapine for intranasal delivery using a spray actuator to target the brain for treating depression. Research on the solubility of medications in different oils, surfactants, co-surfactants, and solvents has been done. [...] Read more.

The purpose of the present work was to develop nanoemulsion-based formulations of mirtazapine for intranasal delivery using a spray actuator to target the brain for treating depression. Research on the solubility of medications in different oils, surfactants, co-surfactants, and solvents has been done. Using pseudo-ternary phase diagrams, the various ratios of the surfactant and co-surfactant mix were computed. Thermotriggered nanoemulsion was formulated using different concentrations of poloxamer 407 (i.e., 15%, 15.5%, 16%, 16.5% up to 22%). Similarly, mucoadhesive nanoemulsion using 0.1% Carbopol and water-based plain nanoemulsions were also prepared for comparative assessment. The developed nanoemulsions were analyzed for physicochemical properties, i.e., physical appearance, pH, viscosity, and drug content. Drug-excipient incompatibility was determined by Fourier transform infrared spectral (FTIR) analysis and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). In vitro drug diffusion studies were conducted for optimized formulations. Among the three formulations, RD1 showed the highest percentage of drug release. Ex vivo drug diffusion studies were conducted on freshly excised sheep nasal mucosa with Franz diffusion cell simulated nasal fluid (SNF) for all three formulations up to 6 h, and the thermotriggered nanoemulsion (RD1) showed 71.42% drug release with 42.64 nm particle size and a poly dispersity index of 0.354. The zeta potential was found to be −6.58. Based on the above data, it was concluded that thermotriggered nanoemulsion (RD1) has great potential to be used as an intranasal gel for treating depression in patients. It can offer great benefits by reducing dosing frequency and improving bioavailability of mirtazapine by direct nose-to-brain delivery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels)

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Open AccessArticle

Experimental Correction and Treatment of Chronic Liver Failure Using Implantable Cell-Engineering Constructs of the Auxiliary Liver Based on a Bioactive Heterogeneous Biopolymer Hydrogel

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Murat Shagidulin

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Nina Onishchenko

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Victor Sevastianov

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Mikhail Krasheninnikov

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060456 - 01 Jun 2023

Abstract

Our study sought approaches for chronic liver failure (CLF) treatment and correction via cell-engineered constructs (CECs). They are built from biopolymer-based, microstructured, and collagen-containing hydrogel (BMCG). We also strove to evaluate the functional activity of BMCG in liver regeneration. Materials and Methods: Allogeneic [...] Read more.

Our study sought approaches for chronic liver failure (CLF) treatment and correction via cell-engineered constructs (CECs). They are built from biopolymer-based, microstructured, and collagen-containing hydrogel (BMCG). We also strove to evaluate the functional activity of BMCG in liver regeneration. Materials and Methods: Allogeneic liver cells (namely, hepatocytes; LC) together with mesenchymal multipotent stem cells of bone marrow origin (MMSC BM; BMSCs) were adhered to our BMCG to compose implanted liver CECs. Thereafter, we investigated a model of CLF in rats receiving the implanted CECs. The CLF had been provoked by long-term exposure to carbon tetrachloride. The study comprised male Wistar rats (n = 120) randomized into 3 groups: Group 1 was a control group with the saline treatment of the hepatic parenchyma (n = 40); Group 2 received BMCG only (n = 40); and Group 3 was loaded with CECs implanted into the parenchyma of their livers (n = 40). August rats (n = 30) made up a donor population for LCs and MMSC BM to develop grafts for animals from Group 3. The study length was 90 days. Results: CECs were shown to affect both biochemical test values and morphological parameters in rats with CLF. Conclusion: We found BMCG-derived CECs to be operational and active, with regenerative potential. Group 3 showed significant evidence of forced liver regeneration that tended to persist until the end of the study (day 90). The phenomenon is reflected by biochemical signs of hepatic functional recovery by day 30 after grafting (compared to Groups 1 and 2), whereas structural features of liver repair (necrosis prevention, missing formation of vacuoles, degenerating LC number decrease, and delay of hepatic fibrotic transformation). Such implantation of BMCG-derived CECs with allogeneic LCs and MMSC BM might represent a proper option to correct and treat CLF, as well as to maintain affected liver function in patients with liver grafting needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Gels Engineering for Drug Delivery)

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Open AccessArticle

Multifunctional Oxidized Dextran Cross-Linked Alkylated Chitosan/Drug-Loaded and Silver-Doped Mesoporous Bioactive Glass Cryogel for Hemostasis of Noncompressible Wounds

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Gels 2023, 9(6), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9060455 - 01 Jun 2023

Abstract

Noncompressible wounds resulting from accidents and gunshots are typically associated with excessive bleeding, slow wound healing, and bacterial infection. Shape-memory cryogel presents great potential in controlling the hemorrhaging of noncompressible wounds. In this research, a shape-memory cryogel was prepared using a Schiff base [...] Read more.

Noncompressible wounds resulting from accidents and gunshots are typically associated with excessive bleeding, slow wound healing, and bacterial infection. Shape-memory cryogel presents great potential in controlling the hemorrhaging of noncompressible wounds. In this research, a shape-memory cryogel was prepared using a Schiff base reaction between alkylated chitosan (AC) and oxidized dextran (ODex) and then incorporated with a drug-laden and silver-doped mesoporous bioactive glass (MBG). Hydrophobic alkyl chains enhanced the hemostatic and antimicrobial efficiency of the chitosan, forming blood clots in the anticoagulated condition, and expanding the application scenarios of chitosan-based hemostats. The silver-doped MBG activated the endogenous coagulation pathway by releasing Ca²⁺ and prevented infection through the release of Ag⁺. In addition, the proangiogenic desferrioxamine (DFO) in the mesopores of the MBG was released gradually to promote wound healing. We demonstrated that AC/ODex/Ag-MBG DFO(AOM) cryogels exhibited excellent blood absorption capability, facilitating rapid shape recovery. It provided a higher hemostatic capacity in normal and heparin-treated rat-liver perforation-wound models than gelatin sponges and gauze. The AOM gels simultaneously promoted infiltration, angiogenesis, and tissue integration of liver parenchymal cells. Furthermore, the composite cryogel exhibited antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Thus, AOM gels show great promise for clinical translation in treating lethal, noncompressible bleeding and the promotion of wound healing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hybrid Gels Films)

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