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Review

Toward to Hydrogen Energy of Electric Power: Characteristics and Main Case Studies in Shenzhen

by
Zhijun Deng
1,
Jinqiao Du
2,†,
Jie Tian
2,
Zhenning Gan
2,
Bingjie Wang
1 and
Chen Zhao
1,*
1
Deptartment of Automotive and Transportation Engineering, Shenzhen Polytechnic, Shenzhen 518055, China
2
Shenzhen Power Supply Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Jinqiao Du is the co-first author.
Processes 2023, 11(3), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030728
Submission received: 28 January 2023 / Revised: 22 February 2023 / Accepted: 24 February 2023 / Published: 28 February 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Power Electronics for Energy Transition and Renewable Energy Conversion Processes)
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Abstract

:
China has pledged that it will strive to achieve peak carbon emission by 2030 and realize carbon neutrality by 2060, which has spurred renewed interest in hydrogen for widespread decarbonization of the economy. Hydrogen energy is an important secondary clean energy with the advantage of high density, high calorific value, rich reserves, extensive sources and high conversion efficiency that can be widely used in power generation, transportation, fuel and other fields. In recent years, with the guidance of policies and the progress of technology, China’s hydrogen energy industry has developed rapidly. About 42% of China’s carbon emissions comes from the power system and Shenzhen has the largest urban power grid in China. Bringing the utilization of hydrogen energy into Shenzhen’s power system is an important method to achieve industry transformation, achieve the “double carbon” goal and promote sustainable development. This paper outlines the domestic and international development status of hydrogen energy, introduces the characteristics of Shenzhen new power system, the industrial utilization of hydrogen energy and the challenges of further integrating hydrogen energy into Shenzhen new power system and, finally, suggests on the integration of hydrogen energy into Shenzhen new power system in different dimensions.

1. Introduction

Hydrogen energy is a clean secondary energy characterized by high energy density, high calorific value, rich reserves, wide sources and high conversion efficiency, and is widely used in power generation, heat supply, transportation fuel and other fields [1]. The total amount of hydrogen production in China has been about 24 million tons every year since 2015. With the expansion of production scale, hydrogen energy has become increasingly important in China’s new energy industry [2]. The power industry is an important greenhouse gas emission industry. In March 2021, President Xi proposed the strategy of building a new power system at the ninth meeting of the Central Financial and Economic Commission, pointing out that “efforts should be made to improve utilization efficiency, implement renewable energy substitution actions, and deepen the reform of the power system” [3,4]. In October 2021, the State Council issued the Action Plan for Achieving Carbon Peak by 2030, proposing to “build a new power system with a gradually increasing proportion of new energy, and promote the optimal allocation of clean power resources in a wide range” [5,6]. In 2021, the power supply load of Shenzhen reached 10,200 kW / km 2 , ranking first among large and medium-sized cities in mainland China. Shenzhen power grid has become the city power grid with the largest power supply load density in China [7]. Developing new energy applications, promoting the integration of hydrogen energy technology into the power system and accelerating the decarbonization of electrical system are important measures and the only way for Shenzhen to achieve the goal of “double carbon” [8].
The development of hydrogen energy has become a global consensus. At present, more than 30 countries in the world have incorporated hydrogen energy into their national energy development strategies and have formulated strategic plans for the development of hydrogen energy industry at the national level. Many countries have incorporated the manufacturing and development of hydrogen energy into their national energy strategies. North America (specifically the United States), Europe (specifically Germany) and East Asia are regions with a high degree of industrialization of hydrogen energy. From the perspective of hydrogen energy strategic layout of major developed countries in the world, the R&D and commercial application of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are the focus of these countries. At the same time, countries are also expanding the application scale of hydrogen energy in power generation, energy storage and industrial decarbonization. According to the Report on the Future Development Trend of Hydrogen Energy issued by the International Hydrogen Energy Commission, it is estimated that by 2050, hydrogen energy consumption will account for about 18% of the total global energy consumption [9]. With the continuous implementation of policies, since the 1980s, countries have successively launched significant hydrogen energy projects: Brandenburg, Germany, built the world’s first hybrid energy power station with hydrogen energy as the intermediary of power storage in 2013 [10]; in 2015, Mainz Energy Project was officially launched, which is currently the largest hydrogen station in the world; in 2018, German hydrogen powered trains were officially launched, becoming the first batch of demonstration projects for the combination of hydrogen energy and fuel cells. In general, the hydrogen energy industry is becoming more and more mature [11].
Most of the hydrogen comes from fossil energy [12], which is not conducive to reducing the production of carbon dioxide, so hydrogen production through renewable energy power generation [13], biological hydrogen production [14], photocatalytic hydrogen production [15] or aluminum combustion directly produce hydrogen [16] and other technologies [17] are also constantly developing and improving. In addition, hydrogen energy must be stored and transported to end users after production, so high-pressure hydrogen storage [18], liquid hydrogen storage [19], metal hydride hydrogen storage [20], organic liquid hydrogen storage [21] and metal-organic framework (MOFS) hydrogen storage [22] technologies are also constantly developing.
Hydrogen is obtained by natural gas steam reforming, oxidation, catalytic cracking and plasma weight shaping [23], in addition to electrolysis hydrogen production. Of course, natural gas can also be obtained by hydrogen methanation [24]. Therefore, hydrogen energy and natural gas can complete mutual conversion according to the needs of different application scenarios.
In addition, the way of doping hydrogen through natural gas pipelines can effectively reduce the carbon emissions of gas and the cost of hydrogen storage and transportation [25]. However, the addition of hydrogen to natural gas pipelines may cause risks such as hydrogen embrittlement, hydrogen bubbling, decarburization and hydrogen corrosion to pipeline materials, and will also affect compressors, pipe fittings, valves, metering and other facilities, depending on the doping concentration of hydrogen. Therefore, it is necessary to simulate different pipeline materials and hydrogen doping ratios and test actual working conditions to form reliable evaluation methods and standard specifications [26], do a respectable job of real-time monitoring and leakage emergency plan and break through the bottleneck of the development of natural gas pipeline hydrogen doping technology.
China has an integrated industrial system and a sound foundation for the hydrogen production industry. The scale of production and use of hydrogen as raw gas and industrial gas is very large [27]. In recent years, with the rapid development of renewable energy-integrated systems and the rise of the electric vehicle industry, the market’s expectation of hydrogen energy technology has been rising, and the country attaches foremost importance to the development of the hydrogen energy industry. In 2016, China issued the Roadmap for Key Innovation Actions in Energy Technology Revolution and the 13th Five-Year National Science and Technology Innovation Plan, which emphasized the key development of hydrogen energy [28,29]. In 2019, “hydrogen energy” was written into the national government report for the first time [30]. In December 2020, the white paper of China’s Energy Development in a New Era determined the importance to “support the development of new technologies, new models and new business forms, accelerate the development of hydrogen energy industry chain technology and equipment such as green hydrogen production, storage, transportation and application, and promote the development of hydrogen fuel cell technology chain and hydrogen fuel cell vehicle industry chain.” [31]. On 22 February 2021, the State Council issued the Guiding Opinions on Accelerating the Establishment and Improvement of a Green and Low Carbon Recycling Development Economic System, pointing out that we should vigorously develop hydrogen energy and increase the construction of hydrogen refueling stations and other supporting facilities [32]. The high attention paid to hydrogen and policy support in China has caused the hydrogen production industry to develop well. In 2016, the Dalian “Twelfth Five Year” 863 Project Demonstration Project completed the first wind solar hybrid hydrogen generation station of our country, integrating hydrogen production technology, ultra-high pressure storage technology and injection technology very well [33]. In 2018, the National Energy Administration developed a demonstration area for comprehensive energy utilization in Guangzhou, realizing the advanced layout of core technologies in the hydrogen energy industry, giving rise to the agglomeration effect, and actively building a “China hydrogen valley” [34]. In 2019, Baofeng Energy started the solar water electrolysis hydrogen production project that is known as the largest single plant and the largest single unit capacity hydrogen production project in the world [35]. Besides, the first fuel cell generator set in the Lu’an megawatt hydrogen energy comprehensive utilization demonstration station was successfully connected to the grid for power generation, which is the first megawatt level electrolytic pure water hydrogen production, hydrogen storage and hydrogen fuel cell power generation system in China [36]. In addition, relevant domestic scientific research institutions and enterprises are also continuing to carry out research and exploration, focusing on improving the stability of hydrogen production system, improving hydrogen production efficiency and promoting the commercialization of renewable hydrogen production.
The aim of this work is to study on the construction of Shenzhen’s new power system under the guidance of the national hydrogen energy strategy, which is conducive to promoting the high-quality development and utilization of hydrogen energy in Shenzhen to build a clean and low-carbon multi energy system, see in the Figure 1. In this research, we present in-depth and systematical investigation of Shenzhen power system and explore the key directions and typical scenarios of hydrogen energy application in it. The difficulties, challenges and costs of each scenario are analyzed. Then we give reasonable suggestions on further promoting the deep integration of Shenzhen’s power industry and hydrogen energy industry considering the economic and natural foundation. In Section 2, we outline the characteristics of the Shenzhen power grid, and present the layout and challenges for further development of hydrogen energy applied in the Shenzhen power system. Section 3 presents the typical scenarios of hydrogen energy, including the combination of hydrogen and offshore wind power, nuclear energy and other clean energy. Distributed hydrogen generation and energy storage and SOFC Distributed Generation are also introduced in this part. Section 4 presents the conclusions and prospect. We discuss what needs to be done next from different perspectives.

2. Characteristics and Application in Hydrogen Energy

2.1. Characteristics of Shenzhen Power Grid

2.1.1. Large Proportion of External Power

The Shenzhen power grid is a typical receiving end city power grid in which the local regulated power supply only accounts for 30% of the power supply of the grid. At the same time, Shenzhen is short in land resources and is mainly occupied by a large number of buildings. Shenzhen does not have large-scale natural resources of photovoltaic, wind power, energy storage and other new energy resulting in the difficulties to plan the layout of a micro grid and an intelligent distributed grid. Therefore, Shenzhen attaches great importance to the design and utilization of new energy [37,38]. The types of power supply in Shenzhen include coal power, gas power, hydropower, nuclear power, wind power, energy storage, garbage power generation, etc. “West Power” is the main force among the external power sources, which account for 70%. Shenzhen Power Grid has taken an active role in the “West East Power Transmission” project, overcoming key problems such as high altitude, high earthquake intensity, heavy ice area and power transmission outside the area, and meeting the power supply demand of the city [39].

2.1.2. High Level of Cleanliness

Shenzhen gives full play to the power grid’s ability to optimize resource allocation, sets new energy units as the highest priority in the energy-saving dispatching system and makes every effort to promote the grid connection of hydropower, photovoltaic and other clean energy. When receiving external power, clean energy power is also the primary source to choose. Directed by the concept of “protecting the environment is an inevitable requirement for achieving sustainable development”, a number of green and environmentally friendly power plants have been put into operation, a series of clean transformation projects of local coal-fired power plants have been carried out and a series of electric energy substitution projects, such as cold storage air conditioners and electromagnetic kitchens, have been vigorously promoted. Besides, deep storage power plants have been put into operation as a key construction project in China’s renewable energy development planning. At the same time, China Southern Power Grid Corporation took the lead in adopting a number of advanced energy-saving technologies and design schemes nationwide in the planning and construction of Shenzhen power grid, effectively promoting the coordinated development of the power grid and the urban environment. The proportion of wind power, photovoltaic and other distributed energy installations has increased year by year. The local power supply has been gradually transformed and upgraded, striving to fully build a new power system with new energy [40,41].

2.1.3. Strong Power Supply Reliability

In 2021, the power supply load density of Shenzhen reached 10,200 kw/km2, ranking first among large and medium-sized cities in China. The Shenzhen power grid has become the city power grid with the largest power supply load density and leading power supply reliability in China. In addition, the impact of the typhoon in Shenzhen in summer puts forward high requirements for the stability of power grid operation [42]. Since 1985, Shenzhen has effectively reduced power failure areas caused by distribution network failures through electrification of distribution lines and looped network connection [43,44]. The Shenzhen Power Supply Bureau vigorously promoted the practicability of technologies such as “replacing people with machines” and distribution network automation, and improved the speed of fault power recovery [45]. In addition, Shenzhen Power Supply Bureau is building the strong power grid with the goal of “zero power outage”, eliminating the impact of planned power outages with the goal of “zero perception”, reducing the ill-effect of power outages with the goal of “zero impact”, which fully supports Shenzhen’s urban positioning and high-quality development. These progress provides strong power security for the construction of the Guangdong Hong Kong Macao Greater Bay Area and the leading demonstration area of socialism with Chinese characteristics [46]. At present, the Shenzhen power grid has a mature reliability management system whose uninterrupted cable operation scale ranks first in China, and the relevant achievements have reached the international leading level [47,48].

2.1.4. Improved Level of Intelligence

The Shenzhen Power Grid has explored the application of 5G, artificial intelligence and Huawei’s Internet of Things terminal technology in the power grid system, and realized intelligent patrol inspection, accurate obstacle removal and partial unmanned operation. In the meantime, it optimized differential protection and improved work efficiency comprehensively, creating an efficient power transmission network, intelligent power transformation network and reliable distribution network. On 2 June 2022, the third-generation dispatching automation system of Shenzhen Power Supply Bureau was officially put into operation. A precedent for integrated dispatching automation of main distribution of power grids in mega cities was created for the first time, realizing “one control to the end” of power grids [49,50].

2.2. Hydrogen Energy Layout in the Shenzhen Power Grid

With the increasingly development of the hydrogen energy industry, and the goal of reforming the new power system and developing Shenzhen as a green city, exploring effective and sustainable ways to integrate hydrogen energy into all dimensions of the power industry has become a significant subject. Shenzhen has mastered a number of core technologies in the key areas of hydrogen energy, achieved a series of domestic leading technological achievements, and has a large number of innovative enterprises and research institutions specializing in hydrogen energy technology. At present, the integration scenario of Shenzhen’s hydrogen energy and power system covers the whole process of hydrogen production, transmission, storage, usage and so on. In the future, Shenzhen should pay more attention on expanding and optimizing the industry cluster, improving the level of technological innovation, strengthening energy opening and cooperation, expanding the scale of photovoltaic development, developing smart grid and so on, to make efforts to integrate hydrogen energy into the development of Shenzhen’s power industry.

2.2.1. Supplement Emerging Clean Energy

The “double carbon” goal has promoted the utilization and development of clean energy to an unprecedented position [51]. Under the guidance of this goal, Shenzhen continues to explore the coupling development of hydrogen energy system and wind power, coordinated utilization with nuclear energy and multiple energy complementation with clean energy such as light energy, heat energy, natural gas and biomass energy. Facing the new demand for energy use in new infrastructure, Shenzhen carries out green, efficient, low-cost, large-scale hydrogen production, hydrogen storage and hydrogen transportation technologies to effectively make up for the shortage of new energy, and improve the overall energy utilization efficiency.

2.2.2. Improve the Stability of the Power System

In the context of a smart grid and “dual carbon”, a large number of distributed power sources in various forms are integrated into the Shenzhen power grid. However, distributed power sources are highly random (such as wind power generation and photovoltaic power generation are heavily dependent on weather factors), and they need to be supplemented by energy storage devices to stabilize their power generation and supply fluctuations. The micro grid hybrid energy storage system composed of hydrogen and battery storage can meet the charging and discharging requirements with high-cost performance. As an important means of peak shaving, the source end electric hydrogen generation equipment tracks the fluctuating output of new energy. The hydrogen produced can be used by local users without waste, and can also be used as an important supplement for electrochemical energy storage, pumped storage and power regulation through the regeneration of hydrogen burning units. It can be operated in coordination with peak shaving to ensure the relative stability and controllability of power transmission outside the power grid [52].

2.2.3. Boost the Sustainable Development of the Hydrogen Fuel Cell Industry

Hydrogen energy has driven the development of a large number of hydrogen power new energy industries in Shenzhen, involving transportation, distributed power generation, unmanned aerial vehicles, smart grid and so on, among which the hydrogen fuel cell industry is the most representative. Shenzhen is the first benchmark city to develop the new energy automobile industry in China who has the first mover advantage in R&D and technology. It has a large number of mature industrial cluster enterprises, including more than 60 innovative enterprises related to hydrogen energy and fuel cell industry, achieving a complete industrial chain [53,54]. In addition, Shenzhen has included the hydrogen energy and fuel cell vehicle industry into the key areas of strategic emerging industries in the Fourteenth Five-Year Plan [55], and will issue the city’s hydrogen energy industry development plan and policy support measures to carry out demonstration applications of hydrogen energy innovative products in transportation, distributed energy, emerging and cross cutting fields. In the future, hydrogen fuel vehicles in Shenzhen will take the lead in heavy haul and long-distance transportation fields by virtue of technical advantages such as a short hydrogenation time and being long range, low carbon and pollution free. Hydrogen fuel vehicles will form a development pattern of dislocation promotion and complementary advantages with lithium power battery vehicles.

2.3. Challenges for Further Development of Hydrogen Energy

Hydrogen energy storage can effectively supply the shortage of electrochemical energy storage, help the development of new power systems and become an important technical direction to achieve energy structure transformation in the future. However, due to the constraints of technology, economy, policies, standards and other factors, there is still a certain distance between hydrogen energy and mature development. Many challenges exist for the large-scale application of hydrogen energy in new power systems.
Some constraints are due to development, as Shenzhen has few land resources. There is often a large time and space dislocation between hydrogen production and consumption, which is caused by the distribution of renewable energy resources. Up until now, there have been some obstacles at the hydrogen production end and an integrated hydrogen storage and transportation network channel has not been formed to solve the problem of stable hydrogen energy supply in Shenzhen. At the same time, due to the late development of hydrogen energy utilization, even if Shenzhen’s energy utilization is more avant-garde, the demand for hydrogen is still relatively simple. According to the energy calculation, the current coal consumption in Shenzhen accounts for nearly 40% of the energy consumption. Besides, it also focuses on natural gas and secondary oil consumption. To promote the diversification of hydrogen energy and market players, it is necessary to play the dual role of an effective market and a promising government.
The supporting facilities are not complete. Compared with the petrochemical energy industry, hydrogen energy is a new emerging energy who lacks the overall layout of corresponding infrastructure. For example, urban hydrogen refueling stations, hydrogen transmission pipelines, industrial by-product hydrogen purification systems and other support facilities are seriously insufficient. In the meantime, incomplete infrastructure makes it difficult to form an effective linkage between the upstream and downstream of the current hydrogen energy industry chain system, and the relevant operation mode is not yet sound [56].
A hydrogen energy storage system has low efficiency and excessive cost. Although domestic enterprises are relatively mature in coal hydrogen production, hydrogen purification and other industrial links, the electrolytic water hydrogen production technology, which is most promising for large-scale green hydrogen production, accounts for less than 2% of China’s hydrogen energy structure due to its high cost. Moreover, the two energy conversions in the “Electricity-Hydrogen-Electricity” process of hydrogen energy storage make the overall efficiency only about 40%, which cannot meet the requirements of industrialization and commercialization. The strict requirements of hydrogen energy conversion efficiency on key materials, equipment parts, complex process and high cost have become the limiting factors for the combination of hydrogen energy and power system, which need to be solved through technological breakthrough and improvement, as well as localization and large-scale application [57].
The policy system and standard system are still not sound enough. Although hydrogen energy has been regarded as the key research direction of medium and long-term scientific and technological development by the state, and hydrogen energy storage has also been explicitly included in the “new energy storage”, the top-level planning on electricity hydrogen coupling is still being improved. On the one hand, the incentive mechanism is still not mature, while on the other hand, there are few technical standards related to hydrogen quality, storage, transportation, hydrogen refueling stations and safety. A sound set of international, national or industrial standards is urgently needed to regulate the healthy development of the hydrogen energy industry market, especially for the technology process, equipment, production and operation links in new hydrogen energy fields, such as renewable energy hydrogen production, liquid hydrogen storage and industrial green hydrogen [58].

3. Analysis of Typical Scenarios of Hydrogen Energy

3.1. Coupling of Hydrogen Energy and Offshore Wind Power

Hydrogen production from offshore wind power is one of the main forces of green hydrogen production in the future. It will be a win-win solution for the development of offshore wind power and hydrogen energy, which is most effective way and approach for Shenzhen to achieve green hydrogen production based on existing basic conditions [59]. The establishment of an integrated wind storage system with the help of hydrogen generation from wind power can effectively alleviate the contradiction between the rapid growth of offshore wind power and the slow speed of power grid construction, solve the problem of offshore wind power consumption, and improve the utilization rate of wind energy. At the same time, it can help the development of offshore wind power and the green hydrogen industry, achieving sustainable development of economy, society and nature [60,61].
Among offshore wind power hydrogen production technology, offshore wind power onshore hydrogen production technology transmits offshore wind power ashore through submarine cables to produce hydrogen onshore. Offshore platform hydrogen production technology uses offshore platforms to produce hydrogen locally, and then transmits hydrogen to land through pipelines or ships. The key technologies for the two schemes are summarized as follows.
Scheme I: Onshore hydrogen production technology scheme for offshore wind power
There are two types of submarine cables used in offshore wind power onshore hydrogen production technology: high-voltage AC and high-voltage DC [62]. High-voltage AC technology is mature with simple structure and low cost, but there are problems such as resonance and online loss greater than high-voltage DC, requiring static and dynamic reactive power compensation devices. The high-voltage DC control is flexible, whose transmission distance is not limited. It can work in the passive inverter state, but the cost of converter equipment is high with large volume and weight.
The topology of offshore wind power onshore hydrogen generation system via AC transmission is shown in Figure 2. The AC output from the offshore wind turbine is sent to the onshore converter station by the AC submarine cable after being boosted by the sea booster station. Then, the AC is converted into DC, and the power is transmitted to the onshore hydrogen generation station through the substation for hydrogen production [63,64]. The core idea of this scheme is to transmit the electric energy of offshore wind power and the hydrogen produced by offshore wind power through a shared umbilical cable, namely, “electric energy + hydrogen energy” shared transmission, which is applicable to offshore wind power hydrogen production projects that are economical transmit electricity.
The topology of offshore wind power onshore hydrogen generation system via DC transmission is shown in Figure 3. The onshore hydrogen generation system for offshore wind power via DC transmission is mainly composed of offshore wind farms, offshore booster stations, offshore converter stations, onshore substations, hydrogen generation stations and DC cables [65]. The AC power output by the offshore wind turbine is sent to the offshore converter station through the submarine cable after being boosted by the sea booster station, converted into DC power by the offshore converter station, then transmitted to the onshore substation through the DC submarine cable and, finally, sent to the hydrogen generation station for hydrogen production [66]. The main difference between offshore wind power onshore hydrogen generation system via DC transmission and the system via AC transmission is that offshore converter station is required for onshore hydrogen generation system via DC transmission.
Taking an offshore wind farm with a total installed capacity of 300 MW as an example, the economic analysis of this scheme is carried out at the offshore distances of 25, 50 and 75 km. The economic parameters of onshore hydrogen generation scheme for offshore wind power are shown in Table 1.
According to the economic model and the data in the table, the costs of various parts of offshore wind power onshore hydrogen generation system are shown in the Figure 4 and Figure 5.
It can be seen that the system cost is mainly concentrated in the cost of fixed assets, while the maintenance cost and loss cost account for a relatively small proportion. With the increase of offshore distance, the total cost of both systems increases, and the fixed asset cost and annual loss cost of AC transmission system increase the most. The cost of fixed assets in DC transmission system is large, and the loss of AC submarine cable transmission system is larger than that of DC transmission system.
Scheme II: Technical scheme for offshore platform hydrogen production and ship/pipeline hydrogen transportation
The topological structure of offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation system is shown in Figure 6. The alternating current output by the offshore wind turbine is converted into the direct current required by the electrolytic cell through the offshore converter station; then, the direct current is transmitted to the offshore hydrogen generation station through the submarine cable for hydrogen production. Finally, the hydrogen is transmitted to the onshore hydrogen transfer station through the ship. This scheme is applicable to offshore wind power hydrogen generation projects that are no longer economical to transmit power by laying submarine cables.
The topological structure of offshore platform hydrogen production and pipeline hydrogen transmission system is shown in Figure 7. The AC output from the offshore wind turbine is converted into the DC required by the electrolytic cell through the offshore converter station, and the DC is transmitted to the offshore hydrogen generation station through cables for hydrogen production. Finally, the hydrogen is transmitted to the onshore hydrogen transfer station through hydrogen pipelines [67].
Similarly, taking an offshore wind farm with a total installed capacity of 300 MW as an example, the economic analysis of offshore platform hydrogen production and pipeline hydrogen transmission schemes is carried out at 25, 50 and 75 km offshore, respectively. The relevant economic parameters are shown in Table 2. At present, there are several hydrogen transmission pipelines in China, of which the unit investment cost of the Baling Changling hydrogen transmission pipeline is 4.56 million CNY/km, and the unit investment amount of the Jiyuan Luoyang hydrogen transmission pipeline is 6.16 million CNY/km, taking the average of 5.36 million CNY/km. Generally, the cost of offshore pipelines is 40~70% higher than that of onshore pipelines of the same distance and scale. This paper chose a median value of 55%. According to the above data, it is estimated that the cost of submarine hydrogen pipeline is 8.31 million CNY/km. According to the economic model and the data above, the costs of various parts of the offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation systems can be calculated. It can be seen from the cost composition in Figure 8 that the system cost is mainly concentrated in the cost of fixed assets, the maintenance cost is small and the loss cost is negligible. With the increase of offshore distance, the cost of each component increases, among which the cost of fixed assets is the largest, and the increase of maintenance cost and loss cost can be ignored.
The economic parameters of offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation schemes are shown in Table 3. According to the economic model and the data above, the costs of various parts of offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation systems can be calculated. It can be seen from Figure 9 that the cost composition is mainly concentrated on the cost of fixed assets. The maintenance cost is small, and the operation cost is negligible. With the increase of offshore distance, the cost of fixed assets and maintenance remains unchanged, but only the operating cost increases.
According to the above analysis, the offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation schemes are the most economical. With the increase of offshore distance, the annual cost of this scheme is basically unchanged, and the equivalent annual cost of offshore wind power onshore hydrogen generation scheme and offshore platform hydrogen generation and pipeline hydrogen transmission scheme will increase by varying degrees.

3.2. Coordinated Utilization of Hydrogen Energy and Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy has the advantages of low carbon emissions throughout the cycle, high energy density, being able to withstand extreme adverse natural conditions and ensuring the security and stability of power supply. In the face of future low-carbon demand, nuclear hydrogen production can not only achieve carbon free emissions in the hydrogen production process, but also expand the multiple uses of nuclear energy, improve the economic competitiveness of nuclear power plants and create conditions for the harmonious development of nuclear power plants and renewable energy. The shutdown cost of nuclear power plants after startup is extremely high. Generally, after startup, they need to work continuously for 1–1.5 years before shutdown for maintenance. Therefore, when the power plant runs in a low peak period, the power generated by the nuclear power plant cannot be absorbed and stored. Taking CNNC as an example, only in 2018, CNNC discarded about 10 billion kilowatt hours of electricity. If it is used to produce hydrogen from electrolytic water, it can produce hydrogen of 2 billion Nm3, about 178,000 tons [68,69]. Hydrogen production from electricity abandonment can provide additional output for the nuclear power industry, help maintain the service status of aging reactors in the market, and avoid reducing the output of nuclear energy when lower-cost energy can be selected [70,71].
High-temperature gas-cooled reactor hydrogen production technology is an advanced reactor technology with independent intellectual property rights and the characteristics of the fourth generation nuclear energy in our country, which is characterized by good safety and high core outlet temperature and is considered to be the most suitable reactor type for nuclear hydrogen production at present [72]. Many enterprises and scientific research institutes in Shenzhen have also carried out a series of special studies around its key technology breakthroughs. Shenzhen’s largest local power source, the Daya Bay Nuclear Power Station, provides a large amount of clean nuclear power, which can lay a solid foundation for the subsequent use of nuclear energy to electrolyze seawater to produce hydrogen under the scenario of preventing nuclear leakage [73]. Therefore, the coordinated utilization of hydrogen energy and nuclear energy can be regarded as another focus of Shenzhen’s development of hydrogen energy. The nuclear hydrogen hybrid energy system is shown in Figure 10.
The combination of nuclear energy and hydrogen energy needs to consider not only technical issues, but also cost issues. According to the statistics of the International Renewable Energy Agency, since 2010, the cost of new energy technologies such as photovoltaic, solar thermal, battery energy storage, onshore wind power and offshore wind power has decreased by 82%, 47%, 71%, 38% and 29% respectively [74]. This means that the cost of wind power and photovoltaic has decreased much faster than that of nuclear power. Therefore, with the continuous improvement of safety requirements and the rising cost of new projects, it is urgent to lower the costs of nuclear energy so that its competitiveness can be improved. We need to continue to promote the development of core technologies and make nuclear hydrogen production a green industry with economic advantages, social benefits and shared development achievements in the next step.

3.3. Complementation of Hydrogen Energy and Other Clean Energy

Under the requirements of carbon emission reduction and energy utilization improvement, giving full play of the technical advantages of complementary hydrogen production from multiple renewable energy sources, improving the smooth operation of coordinated and complementary multiple energy sources, and optimizing the way of hydrogen storage and transportation, are crucial problems in the field of hydrogen energy [75,76]. The renewable energy hydrogen production technology converts renewable energy into electric energy through wind turbines, solar cells, water pumps and other generator sets. Then, electric energy is converted into hydrogen through electrolytic water hydrogen production equipment, and hydrogen is delivered to hydrogen application terminals or connected to the power grid through fuel cells to complete the conversion from renewable energy to hydrogen energy [77]. Based on existing wind farms, photovoltaic power stations and hydropower stations, combined with the advantages of hydrogen production technology, the topological structure of a renewable multi energy complementary hydrogen production system can be established. The wind power generation system and photovoltaic power generation system give priority to providing energy for AC/DC loads as renewable energy, which can maximize the local consumption of renewable energy, improve the self balance rate of the micro grid and reduce carbon emissions.

3.4. Distributed Hydrogen Generation and Energy Storage

The goal of building a new power system with new energy as the main body will reshape the traditional structure of the power grid, improve the operation complexity of the system and put forward higher requirements for the stable operation of the system. Therefore, it is necessary to study the mechanism of distributed resources participating in the auxiliary power service market [78,79].
Distributed energy storage has the characteristics of source load, which can flexibly realize the transfer of load in time and space, with the advantages of fast response speed and great potential. Its energy storage link is a high-quality dispatching resource for power auxiliary services. The hybrid energy storage microgrid mechanism with hydrogen storage is shown in Figure 11. The distributed power supply includes photovoltaic arrays and wind turbines. The hybrid energy storage includes batteries and hydrogen storage. The hydrogen storage consists of electrolytic cells, hydrogen storage tanks and fuel cells. Each system is connected to the AC bus through converters. The arrows in the figure show the power flow direction. The distributed power generation is responsible for the output power, and the load part is responsible for the input power. The power flow direction of the grid part depends on the power shortage of the microgrid. The power of the energy storage part is bidirectional, which can input power and output power [80].

3.5. SOFC Distributed Generation

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are an efficient and clean energy conversion device. It has the advantages of high-power generation efficiency, high waste heat quality, no vibration and noise, wide range of fuel selection and so on. In the field of hydrogen production, comprehensive energy supply stations and energy storage, SOFC can use renewable electricity to conduct high temperature electrolytic hydrogen production, of which the highest electrolysis efficiency can exceed 90%, making it the most efficient electrolysis technology at present [81]. In terms of energy storage, SOFC also has unique advantages and huge market prospects, as it can utilize waste heat energy, waste high-temperature carbon dioxide and other resources to realize the reuse of electrolytic water for hydrogen production [82]. The core technical difficulty in the development of SOFC lies in the stack and the thermal balance system, in which the heat balance system is key to ensure the efficient and stable operation of the stack. The electricity heat hydrogen multi energy complementary system is shown in Figure 12. The supply side is the energy source of this system, which is composed of the superior power grid, heating network, wind power and photovoltaic power. The load side is composed of electrical and thermal loads. The conversion side comprises an electric boiler unit, a hydrogen energy storage unit, and a thermal energy storage unit for electric heat transfer. Then, the system uses surplus renewable energy to electrolyze water to produce hydrogen and store it as fuel for hydrogen burning gas turbine to supply energy for terminal electric heating load.
The overall cost of SOFC is high. One reason for this is that the industry is in an early commercial stage with small scale and insufficient supporting facilities. On the other hand, industrial SOFC products operate under as hot temperature as 650~900 °C, requiring various components, materials and coatings that can bear high temperature, which increases the cost of materials and processes. At the same time, because SOFC does not have high accelerated aging test conditions, any technical improvement will take a long time to verify, resulting in higher R&D investment.
However, in the long run, SOFC still has great development opportunities and prospects. Enterprises and research institutions in Japan and Europe have had SOFC systems running for more than 10 years, demonstrating the good reliability and long life of SOFC technology. In terms of cost, even though there are many problems at present, no insurmountable technology and equipment are used in this system, so the cost can be reduced as the industry matures. It is estimated that with an annual output of more than 100 MW, the manufacturing cost can be significantly reduced to less than 15,000 CNY/kw or even lower [83].

4. Conclusions and Prospect

With the technological progress and the increase of the proportion of renewable energy, the cost of hydrogen will gradually reduce, and hydrogen energy will be further developed. In combination with the situation of Shenzhen’s power system, and the need to develop new power systems, relevant research work can be carried out in the future from the following aspects.

4.1. Improve Policy Mechanism

Top-level design, policy support and reasonable mechanism management are necessary for the development of every emerging industry. The government and relevant departments need to clarify the position, objective and technical route of hydrogen energy in Shenzhen’s new power system, encouraging and guiding enterprises and research institutes to rationally lay out industrial construction. They should also pay great attention to coordinate the inconsistency between technological development and transformation objectives in combination with the industrial foundation and resource endowment. It is necessary to promote the orderly development of hydrogen energy industry from top to bottom with a sound organizational structure, a clear labor division and an explicit responsible department. In the meantime, establishing good backward force mechanism and incentive mechanism, expanding industrial investment and financing channels, increasing support for hydrogen fuel cell vehicle procurement, constructing hydrogen refueling stations, promoting the hydrogen energy industry and innovation platform projects and providing financial and tax incentives or subsidies for the hydrogen energy industry chain are all indispensable ways to promote the development of hydrogen energy. Last but not least, we should pay special attention to the strengthening the implementation of safety regulations and standards, including new energy hydrogen production, hydrogenation integration, reversible fuel cells, electric hydrogen coupling system operation and other standards, as well as hydrogen energy safety assurance and emergency management.

4.2. Integrate Scientific and Technological Resources

Technological innovation is the cornerstone and power of industrial progress. According to incomplete statistics, there are more than 60 hydrogen energy and fuel cell related enterprises in Shenzhen, and many scientific research institutions actively make breakthroughs in key technologies of hydrogenation. For example, the Cell and General Hydrogen Energy Teams led by Professor Wang Haijiang in the Southern University of Science and Technology have continued to carry out positive research and development around hydrogen energy utilization in the battery field for many years [84]. Besides, there are many industrial groups with outstanding innovative advantages and scale benefits, such as new materials and new energy vehicles, which have rich experience in the application, demonstration and promotion of new technologies in Shenzhen, which can provide strong support for hydrogen energy development [85]. The government and relevant departments should extensively build communication platforms, cooperation projects and joint research institutions by launching some guidance and support policies to strengthen the collaborative research on technological innovation of the hydrogen energy. Currently, only the scientific and technological strength from local scientific research institutions and enterprises have been integrated, and if the phenomenon of decentralized technical forces and independent efforts can be broken, then a highly collaborative industrial innovation system can be built.

4.3. Strengthen Regional Regulation

Each district in Shenzhen has its own basic accumulation and advantages in hydrogen energy development. Nanshan District is dominated by stack and core materials and system integration, while other districts are concentrated with upstream equipment technology, production, storage and transportation of hydrogen, downstream applications and so on. In addition, Shenzhen is preparing to promote the hydrogen energy demonstration in the eastern and western ports in Nanshan and Yantian Port, build hydrogen production industrial parks in the Shen-Shan Cooperation Zone, Dapeng New Area and other regions, construct hydrogen electricity coupling comprehensive energy demonstration stations in Guangming District and develop hydrogen energy industry demonstration ports in the eastern and western ports [86]. Strengthen the overall planning of the whole city by focusing on specific elements and making clearly the position of different regions, avoiding duplication construction and wasting resources in hydrogen industry, can promote the coordinated development of the whole progress of hydrogen integrating into power system. A new pattern of hydrogen energy industry with distinctive characteristics and coordinated development can be achieved.

4.4. Expand Cooperation

As a demonstration area for reform, Shenzhen has great geographical advantages. On the one hand, there are many cities in the Greater Bay Area of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao that have characteristic foundation in hydrogen energy industry. For example, the Smart Energy Demonstration Community in Foshan, named “Hydrogen Entering into thousands of families”, is the first project in which fuel cell cogeneration equipment is put into household and commercial operation in China. Moreover, the green and low-carbon demonstration operation project of 500 hydrogen fuel cell mud trucks in Guangzhou was the first and largest demonstration operation project of hydrogen fuel cell mud trucks in China [87]. Coordinating with neighboring cities to exchange resources is necessary to obtain greater and deeper support, and better utilize the dual resources of regional and economic development to draw on experience and complement advantages. In the meantime, strengthening cooperation can make up for the shortage of renewable energy distribution in Shenzhen, which is crucial to the development of hydrogen energy industry.

4.5. Promote Market Application

At present, the potential of large-scale application of hydrogen energy in the market has not been fully realized. At the same time, China’s oil and gas suppliers are dominated by the three major state-owned oil and gas enterprises. The difference between the natural monopoly of traditional energy enterprises and the technical needs of emerging new energy enterprises is still not properly balanced, which to some extent limits the pace of hydrogen energy market maturation. Giving full play to the dual roles of an effective market and a promising government, accelerating the promotion of new energy-saving and low-carbon technologies, such as hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, hydrogen power systems, and hydrogen power cogeneration, is how to accelerate the progress of hydrogen energy development. Besides, expanding the application life scenarios, such as taking hydrogen fuel cell vehicles as vehicles for community institutions, state-owned enterprises and institutions can help get through the industrial chain and achieve the goal of “dual carbon”.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.Z.; methodology, Z.D., C.Z.; validation, Z.D., J.D., J.T. and Z.G.; formal analysis, Z.D., J.D.; investigation, Z.D., J.D. and Z.G.; resources, C.Z.; data curation, Z.D., J.D. and Z.G.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.D., J.D. and B.W.; writing—review and editing, C.Z.; visualization, Z.D., J.D. and B.W.; supervision, C.Z.; project administration, C.Z.; funding acquisition, C.Z. and J.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was financially supported by Research on management strategy of zero carbon hydrogen fuel cell system (090000KK52210202) (contract number: 09000020220301030901196).

Data Availability Statement

No data availability.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Content framework of this paper.
Figure 1. Content framework of this paper.
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Figure 2. Topology of onshore hydrogen generation system for offshore wind power via AC transmission.
Figure 2. Topology of onshore hydrogen generation system for offshore wind power via AC transmission.
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Figure 3. Topology of an offshore wind power onshore hydrogen generation system via DC transmission.
Figure 3. Topology of an offshore wind power onshore hydrogen generation system via DC transmission.
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Figure 4. Cost composition of onshore hydrogen production from offshore wind power via AC transmission.
Figure 4. Cost composition of onshore hydrogen production from offshore wind power via AC transmission.
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Figure 5. Cost composition of onshore hydrogen production from offshore wind power via DC transmission.
Figure 5. Cost composition of onshore hydrogen production from offshore wind power via DC transmission.
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Figure 6. Topology of an offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation system.
Figure 6. Topology of an offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation system.
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Figure 7. Topology of an offshore platform hydrogen production and pipeline hydrogen transmission system.
Figure 7. Topology of an offshore platform hydrogen production and pipeline hydrogen transmission system.
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Figure 8. Cost composition of an offshore platform hydrogen production and pipeline hydrogen transmission system.
Figure 8. Cost composition of an offshore platform hydrogen production and pipeline hydrogen transmission system.
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Figure 9. Cost composition of an offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation system.
Figure 9. Cost composition of an offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation system.
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Figure 10. Nuclear hydrogen hybrid energy system.
Figure 10. Nuclear hydrogen hybrid energy system.
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Figure 11. Hybrid energy storage microgrid structure with hydrogen storage.
Figure 11. Hybrid energy storage microgrid structure with hydrogen storage.
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Figure 12. Electric thermal hydrogen multi energy complementary system.
Figure 12. Electric thermal hydrogen multi energy complementary system.
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Table
Table 1. Economic parameters of an offshore wind power hydrogen production system.
Table 1. Economic parameters of an offshore wind power hydrogen production system.
System CompositionCost CompositionCost
AC cableEquipment8.87 million CNY/km
Onshore substationEquipment and installation(0.4347 + 0.0522) million CNY/MW
Offshore converter stationEquipment and installation(2.2 + 7.7) million CNY/MW
DC cableEquipment5.5 million CNY/km
Onshore converter station (220V)Equipment and installation(2.2 + 2.64) million CNY/MW
Alkaline electrolyzerEquipment and installation(2.01 + 0.241) million CNY/MW
Hydrogen compressorEquipment5.04 million CNY/unit
Container tube bundle boxEquipment1.20 million CNY/unit
Table
Table 2. Economic parameters of an offshore platform hydrogen production and pipeline hydrogen transmission system.
Table 2. Economic parameters of an offshore platform hydrogen production and pipeline hydrogen transmission system.
System CompositionCost CompositionCost
Offshore converter stationEquipment and installation(2 + 0.7) million CNY/MW
Alkaline electrolyzerEquipment and installation(2.01 + 0.7035) million CNY/MW
Hydrogen compressionEquipment5.04 million CNY/unit
Hydrogen transportation pipelineEquipment8.31 million CNY/km
Table
Table 3. Economic parameters of an offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation system.
Table 3. Economic parameters of an offshore platform hydrogen production and ship hydrogen transportation system.
System CompositionCost CompositionCost
Offshore converter station (33 kV)Equipment and installation(2 + 0.7) million CNY/MW
Alkaline electrolyzerEquipment and installation(2.01 + 0.7035) million CNY/MW
Hydrogen compressionEquipment5.04 million CNY/unit
Container shipEquipment92 thousand CNY/TEU
Container tube bundle boxEquipment1.20 million CNY/unit
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Deng, Z.; Du, J.; Tian, J.; Gan, Z.; Wang, B.; Zhao, C. Toward to Hydrogen Energy of Electric Power: Characteristics and Main Case Studies in Shenzhen. Processes 2023, 11, 728. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030728

AMA Style

Deng Z, Du J, Tian J, Gan Z, Wang B, Zhao C. Toward to Hydrogen Energy of Electric Power: Characteristics and Main Case Studies in Shenzhen. Processes. 2023; 11(3):728. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030728

Chicago/Turabian Style

Deng, Zhijun, Jinqiao Du, Jie Tian, Zhenning Gan, Bingjie Wang, and Chen Zhao. 2023. "Toward to Hydrogen Energy of Electric Power: Characteristics and Main Case Studies in Shenzhen" Processes 11, no. 3: 728. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030728

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