Next Article in Journal
Mapping Asia Plants: The Threat Status and Influencing Factors of Rare and Endangered Vascular Plant Species in North Asia (Asian Russia)
Next Article in Special Issue
Heterologous Overexpression of Apple MdKING1 Promotes Fruit Ripening in Tomato
Previous Article in Journal
Comparatively Evolution and Expression Analysis of GRF Transcription Factor Genes in Seven Plant Species
Previous Article in Special Issue
Photosynthesis in the Biomass Model Species Lemna minor Displays Plant-Conserved and Species-Specific Features
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Plants
Volume 12
Issue 15
10.3390/plants12152791
plants-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Reveal the Critical Genes of Carotenoid Biosynthesis and Color Formation of Goji (Lycium barbarum L.) Fruit Ripening

by
Feng Wei
1,2,*,†,
Ru Wan
1,†,
Zhigang Shi
1,*,†,
Wenli Ma
2,
Hao Wang
2,
Yongwei Chen
2,
Jianhua Bo
2,
Yunxiang Li
1,
Wei An
1,
Ken Qin
1 and
Youlong Cao
1
1
Wolfberry Engineering Research Institute, Ningxia Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Yinchuan 750002, China
2
Ningxia State Farm A&F Technology Central, Yinchuan 750002, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Plants 2023, 12(15), 2791; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12152791
Submission received: 26 June 2023 / Revised: 20 July 2023 / Accepted: 25 July 2023 / Published: 27 July 2023
(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Plant Physiology and Metabolism)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Carotenoids in goji (Lycium barbarum L.) have excellent health benefits, but the underlying mechanism of carotenoid synthesis and color formation in goji fruit ripening is still unclear. The present study uses transcriptomics and metabolomics to investigate carotenoid biosynthesis and color formation differences in N1 (red fruit) and N1Y (yellow fruit) at three stages of ripening. Twenty-seven carotenoids were identified in N1 and N1Y fruits during the M1, M2, and M3 periods, with the M2 and M3 periods being critical for the difference in carotenoid and color between N1 and N1Y fruit. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), gene trend analysis, and correlation analysis suggest that PSY1 and ZDS16 may be important players in the synthesis of carotenoids during goji fruit ripening. Meanwhile, 63 transcription factors (TFs) were identified related to goji fruit carotenoid biosynthesis. Among them, four TFs (CMB1-1, WRKY22-1, WRKY22-3, and RAP2-13-like) may have potential regulatory relationships with PSY1 and ZDS16. This work sheds light on the molecular network of carotenoid synthesis and explains the differences in carotenoid accumulation in different colored goji fruits.

1. Introduction

Carotenoids, synthesized in the plastids of photosynthetic and sink organs in plants, are essential molecules for photosynthesis and are responsible for natural colors, such as yellow, orange, and red [1,2]. Carotenoids are also vital for human health and nutrition because of their role as vitamin A precursors and antioxidants [3].
Plant carotenoid synthesis begins with the 5-carbon compound isopentyl diphosphate (IPP) production in plastids via the plastidial 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway. First, IPP isomerase (IPI) and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPS) catalyze the formation of geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) from IPP in the plastid. Subsequently, phytoene synthase (PSY) catalyzes the formation of 15-cis-phytoene from two GGPP molecules. The enzymes phytoene desaturase (PDS), zeta-carotene desaturase (ZDS), zeta-carotene isomerase (Z-ISO), and carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO) further convert 15-cis-phytoene to lycopene through a series of desaturations and isomerizations. The subsequent reaction of lycopene is critical for carotenoid diversity in carotenoid metabolism. At this point, the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway branches into two pathways (beta, gamma-carotene, and beta, beta-carotene). In the beta, gamma-carotene pathway, zeta-lycopene cyclase (LCYE), beta-lycopene cyclase (LCYB), cytochrome P450-type monooxygenase 97A (CYP97A), and cytochrome P450-type monooxygenase 97C (CYP97C) catalyze the final production of xanthophyll (lutein) from lycopene. The beta, beta-carotene pathway, on the other hand, requires beta-lycopene cyclase (LCYB), beta-carotene hydroxylase (CHYB/crtR), zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP), violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE), and neoxanthin synthase (NSY) to catalyze the final production of other carotenoids from lycopene [1,4,5].
Goji (Lycium barbarum L.) is a valuable economic tree with high medicinal and nutritional properties. Goji fruit has gained popularity as a “super fruit” due to its high concentration of carotenoids, polysaccharides, and flavonoids [6]. Previous studies have shown eleven free carotenoids and seven carotenoid esters in goji fruit extracts [7]. Carotenoids in goji fruit increase as the fruit ripens, eventually accounting for 0.03% to 0.5% of the dried fruit. The primary carotenoid in goji fruit is zeaxanthin dipalmitate, which accounts for 31–56% of the total carotenoids [8,9].
The accumulation of the main carotenoids usually determines the color of the fruit. Red tomatoes are rich in lycopene, which accounts for around 85% of their total carotenoids [10]. Orange tomatoes (beta mutant) produce increased amounts of beta-carotene at the expense of lycopene [11]. Light-yellow tomatoes, on the other hand, contain little beta-carotene and almost no lycopene [12].
Capsanthin is the most abundant carotenoid in red peppers [13]. However, the yellow pepper varieties contain mainly lutein, alfa-carotene, and beta-carotene, but no capsanthin. Orange peppers accumulate different types of carotenoids, such as capsanthin, lutein, alfa-carotene, and beta-carotene [14]. Beta-carotene levels in carrots and sweet potatoes are typically high [15]. The carotenoid composition of winter squashes varies, with b-carotene, lutein, and violaxanthin being the most abundant [16]. The carotenoid content also varies among goji germplasms. Carotenoids (mainly zeaxanthin) are abundant in red fruits (Lycium barbarum L.) but undetectable in black fruits (Lycium ruthenicum L.) [17].
Although all genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis have been isolated and studied in many plants, research on the genes regulating carotenoid biosynthesis in goji fruits is still lacking. Furthermore, the reasons why different goji cultivars differ in color are unknown. In the present study, transcriptomics and metabolomics were used to detect carotenoid changes and gene transcriptome profiles in two goji verities (N1 and N1Y) during fruit ripening. In addition, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), gene trend, and correlation analysis could identify the essential genes and transcription factors involved in carotenoid synthesis. This study provides important insights into the molecular network of carotenoid synthesis of goji fruits and explains the differences in carotenoid accumulation in different colored goji fruits.

2. Results

2.1. Carotenoid Differences in N1 and N1Y during Fruit Ripening

A previous study identified a bud mutant cultivar N1Y of N1, which has similar growth characteristics and fruit size to N1. However, the fruit color of N1Y is yellow, while N1 is red (Figure 1a). This could be due to a difference in carotenoid levels between N1 and N1Y during fruit ripening. We analyzed fresh fruit samples from the two cultivars at different stages of fruit ripening, namely M1, M2, and M3 (Figure 1a), to compare the carotenoid profile in N1 and N1Y. Total carotenoid content in N1 and N1Y continued to increase during fruit ripening, and N1Y fruit had significantly higher carotenoid levels than N1 during the M2 and M3 periods (Figure 1b). Based on the principal component analysis (PCA) of carotenoids, sampling of N1 and N1Y at different stages was readily repeatable and could be used for subsequent analysis (Figure 1c).
Our study identified 27 carotenoids in the fruits of N1 and N1Y (Figure 2 and Figure S1 and Table S1). Phytoene, zeaxanthin, zeaxanthin dipalmitate, zeaxanthin palmitate, beta-cryptoflavin palmitate, and rubixanthin palmitate were among those whose levels rose during fruit ripening. In contrast, beta-carotene and xanthophyll levels decrease dramatically during fruit ripening (Figure 2). During the M1 period, xanthophyll was the major carotenoid in N1 and N1Y fruits, accounting for 57.2% and 59.7% of the total carotenoid content, respectively. According to the PCA analysis for the M1 period, PC1 (95.27%) has a well explained variance, and xanthophyll was the main loading component (Table S2). However, there was no significant difference in xanthophyll levels between N1 and N1Y (Figure 2). During the M2 period, zeaxanthin and zeaxanthin dipalmitate were the main carotenoids in N1 and N1Y fruits, accounting for 56.2% and 77.3% of the total carotenoid content, respectively. PCA analysis for M2 showed that PC1 (99.81%) provided a well explained variance, and zeaxanthin was the major loading component (Table S2). N1Y fruits contain more zeaxanthin than N1, while N1 has more zeaxanthin dipalmitate (Figure 2). Phytoene, zeaxanthin palmitate, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate were the main carotenoids of N1 fruits during the M3 period, accounting for 59.6% of the total carotenoid content. Zeaxanthin, phytoene, and zeaxanthin palmitate were identified as the main carotenoids of N1Y fruit, accounting for 87.9% of the carotenoid content. According to the PCA analysis for the M3 period, PC1 (98.71%) has a well explained variance, and zeaxanthin and phytoene were the main loading components (Table S2). N1Y had significantly higher levels of zeaxanthin and phytoene than N1. However, N1 had higher levels of zeaxanthin palmitate and zeaxanthin dipalmitate than N1Y (Figure 2).
Thus, the M2 and M3 periods were critical for the carotenoid content difference between N1 and N1Y fruit. Furthermore, differences in the main carotenoids can explain the color variation between N1 and N1Y fruit at the M2 and M3 periods. Much of the zeaxanthin in the N1 fruit was converted to zeaxanthin palmitate and zeaxanthin dipalmitate during the M2 and M3 periods, while the N1Y fruit continued to accumulate zeaxanthin. As a result, from M2 to M3, the N1 fruit gradually turned red, whereas the N1Y fruit turned yellow.

2.2. Transcriptome Profiles of N1 and N1Y Fruits in Different Ripening Periods

The gene expression profiles of N1 and N1Y fruits at the M1, M2, and M3 periods were examined using RNA sequencing to identify the essential genes for carotenoid biosynthesis at various ripening stages. We obtained an average of 7 G clean bases per sample, with 93.38% of bases scoring Q30 (Table S3). Over 92% of the reads mapped to the reference genome of goji (Table S4). Based on principal component analysis (PCA), the samples of N1 and N1Y were highly repeatable at different periods and could be used for subsequent analysis. The cumulative contribution of PC1 reached 87.27%, which may explain the gene expression difference in M1, M2, and M3 of N1 and N1Y fruits (Figure 3a). Finally, 35,615 genes were expressed in N1 and N1Y fruits. There were 1000 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between N1-M1 and N1Y-M1, 116 DEGs between N1-M2 and N1Y-M2, and 314 DEGs between N1-M3 and N1Y-M3 (Figure 3b, Table S5). There were 9666 DEGs in N1-M1 vs. N1-M2, 9835 DEGs in N1-M1 vs. N1-M3, and 2712 DEGs in N1-M2 vs. N1-M3 (Figure 3c, Table S5). N1-M1 vs. N1-M2, N1-M vs. N1-M3, and N1-M2 vs. N1-M3 all share 883 common DEGs, which were enriched in proteins involved in glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, carotenoid biosynthesis, cysteine and methionine metabolism, and photosynthesis proteins (Figure 4a). The DEGs for N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M2, N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M3, and N1Y-M2 vs. N1Y-M3 were 9549, 10,701, and 3501, respectively (Figure 3d, Table S5). N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M2, N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M3, and N1Y-M2 vs. N1Y-M3 shared 943 common DEGs, which were primarily involved in alpha-linolenic acid metabolism, photosynthesis, carotenoid biosynthesis, and starch and sucrose metabolism (Figure 4b). The difference between N1 and N1Y at the M2 and M3 periods was significantly responsible for the change in carotenoid content and the resulting fruit color. Therefore, the DEGs of N1-M1 vs. N1-M2, N1-M1 vs. N1-M3, N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M2, and N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M3 were analyzed. Finally, 5614 DEGs were found in signaling and cellular processes, carotenoid biosynthesis, and carbohydrate, starch, sucrose, and amino acid metabolism (Figure 4c). We selected 13 genes (Table S13) to validate our RNA-seq data. qRT-PCR was used to examine the expression levels of these genes in N1 and N1Y during M1, M2, and M3 (Figure S2). The results revealed that the RNA data were valid and trustworthy, as the expression patterns of these genes matched the RNA-seq results.

2.3. Expression Profiles of Genes of the Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway during Goji Fruit Ripening

To further investigate the critical genes of carotenoid biosynthesis during goji fruit ripening, we analyzed the expression of the carotenoid biosynthesis genes in N1 and N1Y fruits (Figure 5). Three phytoene synthase genes (PSY1, PSY2-1, and PSY2-2) involved in the condensation of geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) were expressed during goji fruit ripening (Figure 5, Table S6). Among them, PSY1 showed a significant increase during goji fruit ripening (Figure 6a), with its expression tightly linked to total carotenoid, zeaxanthin dipalmitate, beta-carotene, and xanthophyll (Figure 6b, Table S7). Expression of PSY2-1 and PSY2-2 significantly decreased during goji fruit ripening (Figure 6a) and were highly correlated with zeaxanthin dipalmitate, beta-carotene, and xanthophyll (Figure 6b, Table S7). Three phytoene dehydrogenases genes (PDS1, PDS2, and PDS3) were discovered in the transcriptome profiles of N1 and N1Y fruit. Only PDS1 and PDS3 were expressed during the catalytic conversion of phytoene to 15,9′-tri-cis-phytofluene and 9,15,9′-tri-cis-zeta-carotene (Figure 5, Table S6). PDS1 levels rose throughout goji fruit ripening (Figure 6a) and significantly correlated with zeaxanthin dipalmitate, xanthophyll, total carotenoid, and beta-carotene (Figure 6b, Table S7). A 15-cis-zeta-carotene isomerase gene (Z-ISO) catalyzing the conversion of 9,15,9′-tri-cis-zeta-carotene to 9,9′-di-cis-zeta-carotene was also identified and showed upregulation (Figure 5 and Figure 6a and Table S6). Meanwhile, the expression of Z-ISO was strongly correlated with xanthophyll, beta-carotene, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate content (Figure 6b, Table S7). Sixteen zeta-carotene desaturases genes (ZDSs) catalyzing the conversion of 9,9′-di-cis-zeta-carotene to 7,9,9′-tri-cis-neurosporene and 7,9,7,9′-tetra-cis-lycopene were also detected (Figure 5, Table S6). ZDS12 and ZDS16 were significantly upregulated (Figure 6a), and their expression was strongly correlated with total carotenoid, zeaxanthin, phytoene, xanthophyll, beta-carotene, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate levels (Figure 6b, Table S7). Eight ZDSs (ZDS1, ZDS2, ZDS5, ZDS6, ZDS7, ZDS10, ZDS 11, and ZDS13) were significantly downregulated (Figure 6a) and inversely associated with total carotenoid concentration (Figure 6b, Table S7). Four prolycopene isomerases genes (crtISOs) were identified and catalyzed the enzymatic conversion of 7,9,7,9′-tetra-cis-lycopene to lycopene (Figure 5, Table S6). Only crtISO-4 varied significantly throughout fruit ripening and strongly correlated with zeaxanthin and beta-carotene (Figure 6a,b, Table S7). One lycopene epsilon cyclase gene (LCYE) catalyzing lycopene to delta-carotene was also detected (Figure 5, Table S6) and was downregulated during fruit ripening (Figure 6a). The expression of LCYE was strongly correlated with total carotenoid, beta-carotene, xanthophyll, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate (Figure 6b, Table S7). We also detected one lycopene beta-cyclase gene (LCYB) in the transcriptome profiles of N1 and N1Y fruit (Figure 5, Table S6). The expression of LCYB increased during fruit ripening (Figure 6a) and was strongly correlated with xanthophyll, beta-carotene, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate levels (Figure 6b, Table S7). The transcriptome profiles of N1 and N1Y fruit revealed three cytochrome P450-type monooxygenase 97A genes (CYP97As) (Figure 5, Table S6). CYP97A2 and CYP97A3 levels increased significantly during fruit ripening (Figure 6a) and were closely linked with zeaxanthin, xanthophyll, beta-carotene, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate (Figure 6b, Table S7). Two beta-carotene hydroxylases genes (CrtRs) were expressed during goji fruit ripening (Figure 5, Table S6). CrtR1 significantly decreased during goji fruit ripening, while CrtR2 increased (Figure 6a). Expression levels of CrtR1 and CrtR2 strongly correlated with total carotenoid, zeaxanthin, xanthophyll, beta-carotene, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate (Figure 6b, Table S7). Three cytochrome P450-type monooxygenase 97C genes (CYP97Cs) were involved in the transcriptome profiles (Figure 5, Table S6), with no significant change during goji fruit ripening (Figure 6a). Three zeaxanthin epoxidase genes (ZEPs) were also expressed during goji fruit ripening (Figure 5, Table S6). All of them decreased during fruit ripening (Figure 6b), and expression of ZEP3 was strongly correlated with xanthophyll, beta-carotene, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate content (Figure 6b, Table S7). The transcriptome profiles identified two violaxanthin de-epoxidases genes (VDEs) (Figure 5, Table S6). VDE2 decreased during goji fruit ripening (Figure 6a), and the expression levels correlated with xanthophyll, beta-carotene, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate (Figure 6b, Table S7). One neoxanthin synthase gene (NSY) was significantly elevated during goji fruit ripening (Figure 5, Figure 6a, Table S6), and its expression was linked with zeaxanthin, xanthophyll, beta-carotene, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate (Figure 6b, Table S7).
According to the expression and correlation, we think that PSY1, PDS1, Z-ISO, ZDS16, crtISO4, LCYE, LCYB, CYP97A2, CYP97A3, CrtR2, VDE2, ZEP3, and NSY may play important roles in carotenoid biosynthesis during goji fruit ripening. Moreover, the expression of PSY1 (0.80, p < 0.05) and ZDS16 (0.88, p < 0.05) had a strong positive correlation with the total carotenoid content of N1 and N1Y fruit (Figure 6b, Table S7). Thus, we conclude that PSY1 and ZDS16 were more important for goji fruit carotenoid biosynthesis than PDS1, Z-ISO, crtISO4, LCYE, LCYB, CYP97A2, CYP97A3, CrtR2, VDE2, ZEP3, and NSY.

2.4. Identification of WGCNA Modules of Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Goji Fruit

A weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was performed for all N1 and N1Y fruit gene expressions to identify critical genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis, and 17 WGCNA modules were identified (Figure 7a, Table S8). We discovered that the main carotenoids of N1 and N1Y fruits at the M1, M2, and M3 stages were zeaxanthin, phytoene, xanthophyll, zeaxanthin dipalmitate, zeaxanthin palmitate, beta-cryptoflavin palmitate, and rubixanthin palmitate. Therefore, we primarily sought modules highly related to these substances. According to the WGCNA, the yellow (0.94, p < 0.05), brown (0.70, p < 0.05), and tan modules (0.65, p < 0.05) had a positive correlation with total carotenoid content, while the pink (−0.9, p < 0.05) and light cyan modules (−0.64, p < 0.05) had a negative correlation. The cyan (0.73, p < 0.05), brown (0.69, p < 0.05), and green modules (0.64, p < 0.05) had a positive correlation with zeaxanthin content, while the blue (−0.61, p < 0.05) and turquoise modules (−0.61, p < 0.05) had a negative correlation. The yellow (0.9, p < 0.05) and tan modules (0.84, p < 0.05) were correlated positively with phytoene content, whereas the pink (−0.83, p < 0.05) and red modules (−0.81, p < 0.05) were correlated negatively. The turquoise (0.78 and 0.84, p < 0.05) and blue modules (0.82 and 0.84, p < 0.05) had a positive correlation with xanthophyll and beta-carotene content, while the brown (−0.99 and −0.95, p < 0.05) and yellow modules (−0.73 and −0.6, p < 0.05) had a negative correlation. The brown module (0.96, p < 0.05) had a positive correlation with zeaxanthin dipalmitate content, while blue and turquoise modules (−0.81, p < 0.05) had a negative correlation. The purple module (0.93, p < 0.05) also had a positive correlation with zeaxanthin palmitate content, while the pink module (−0.6, p < 0.05) had a negative correlation. The content of beta-cryptoflavin palmitate and rubixanthin palmitate was correlated positively with the purple module (0.94, p < 0.05) and negatively with the pink module (−0.67, p < 0.05).
PSY1 and ZDS16 were found to be essential genes for goji fruit carotenoid biosynthesis during fruit ripening. The brown module consisted of PSY1 and ZDS16 (Table S8). Moreover, total carotenoid, zeaxanthin, xanthophyll, beta-carotene, zeaxanthin dipalmitate, neoxanthin, violaxanthin, and lutein palmitate was also strongly correlated with the brown module (Figure 7a). Therefore, the genes of the brown module were worthy of further analysis and study. Meanwhile, we also used the Mfuzz software to examine the expression trend of genes in goji fruit at various stages of ripening. The findings revealed that differential genes could be divided into six clusters (Figure 7b, Table S9). Among them, PSY1 and ZDS16 were classified in cluster 2.

2.5. Identification of Key Transcription Factors Associated with Carotenoid Biosynthesis Pathway

Many studies have shown that transcription factors (TFs) play vital regulatory functions in the biosynthesis of carotenoids in plants [1,4]. The genes of the brown module were worthy of further analysis and study. As a result, we conclude that some TFs in the brown module may be involved in the regulation of carotenoid synthesis. We identified 63 TFs from the brown module (Table S10) that can be classified into two groups based on their expression levels (Figure 8). Since PSY1 and ZDS16 were more important for carotenoid biosynthesis in goji fruit during ripening, we propose that TFs meet the following three criteria to be considered as potential regulators of carotenoid synthesis. First, the correlation with PSY1 and ZDS16 must be more than 0.9 or less than −0.9 (Table S11). There should also be more than a 2-fold increase or decrease in the expression in M2 or M3 compared to M1 (Figure 8). Lastly, the network weight values with PSY1 and ZDS16 must be greater than 0.5 (Table S12). We finally selected three TFs (CMB1-1, WRKY22-1, and WRKY22-3) that positively regulate the carotenoid synthesis and one TF (RAP2-13-like) that negatively regulates the carotenoid synthesis (Figure 9).

3. Discussion

As a traditional Chinese medicinal and nutritional plant, goji (Lycium barbarum L.) has attracted much interest from scientists worldwide, especially regarding the extraction of goji carotenoids and their role in human health [18]. Previous studies discovered 18 carotenoids in goji fruit extracts [7]. Using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), the current study identified 27 carotenoids in N1 and N1Y fruits during fruit ripening (Figure 2 and Figure S1). Peng, Ma, Li, Leung, Jiang and Zhao [9] indicated that the carotenoid content in goji berries increases as the fruit ripens, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate, which makes up 31–56% of all the carotenoids in fruits, is the primary carotenoid. In the present study, we further analyzed the carotenoids content in N1 and N1Y in the three stages of fruit ripening from M1 to M3 (Figure 1b). In N1 and N1Y fruits in the M1 period, xanthophyll was the main carotenoid, accounting for 57.2% and 59.7% of the total carotenoid content, respectively (Figure 2). Zeaxanthin and zeaxanthin dipalmitate, which together accounted for 56.2% and 77.3% of the carotenoid content, respectively, were the primary carotenoids in N1 and N1Y fruits during the M2 period (Figure 2). At the M3 period, the main carotenoid components of N1 fruits were phytoene, zeaxanthin palmitate, and zeaxanthin dipalmitate, which made up 59.6% of the total carotenoid content. However, the primary carotenoids in N1Y fruit were zeaxanthin, phytoene, and zeaxanthin palmitate, which accounted for 87.9% of the carotenoid content (Figure 2). Liu, Zeng, Sun, Wu, Hu, Shen and Wang [17] compared the carotenoid accumulation in red fruit (Lycium barbarum L.) and black fruit (Lycium ruthenicum Murr.). They found that the principal carotenoids in red and black fruit at the green fruit stage (S1) are xanthophyll, violaxanthin, and β-carotene, but, as the fruit ripens, these levels decrease. In addition, the zeaxanthin content of red fruit significantly increases from color break (S2) to the ripe fruit stage (S4) but is undetectable in the black fruit. The present study further explores the carotenoid changes in goji fruit during ripening. As the N1 and N1Y fruits ripened, we observed an increase in phytoene, zeaxanthin, zeaxanthin dipalmitate, zeaxanthin palmitate, beta-cryptoflavin palmitate, and rubixanthin palmitate. Moreover, the amounts of beta-carotene and xanthophyll in N1 and N1Y fruit considerably reduced from M1 to M3 (Figure 2).
Fruit color, an essential appearance and quality character, is determined by the buildup of different pigment compounds. The most significant among them is carotenoid accumulation, which allows plants to take on yellow, orange, and red colors [10,13,19,20,21,22]. Most goji cultivars have red fruit color, while a few are black, yellow, purple, and white (Figure S3). So far, the cause of the color variation between different goji cultivars is still unknown. Some studies suggest that the color difference between red and black fruits is due to the accumulation of anthocyanins in black fruits and carotenoids in red fruits [2,23]. In the present study, the M2 and M3 periods were critical for the difference in carotenoid content and fruit color between N1 and N1Y fruits (Figure 1a,b). During the M2 and M3 periods, zeaxanthin in the N1 fruits was largely converted to zeaxanthin palmitate and zeaxanthin dipalmitate, while the N1Y fruits continued to accumulate zeaxanthin. Thus, the color of the N1 fruit gradually turned red, while the N1Y fruit color appeared yellow from the M2 to M3 period (Figure 1c).
The genes involved in carotenoid metabolism have been identified and investigated in several plants [2,24]. The genes involved in plant carotenoid biosynthesis usually have multiple copies that exhibit tissue-specific expression, such as PSY1, PSY2, and PSY3, which are specifically expressed in the fruits, leaves, and roots of tomatoes and citrus, respectively [25,26]. All tissues express PSY-A, whereas PSY-B is found only in the leaves and roots of watermelons [19]. Most citrus species have two PDS genes and more than three ZDS genes [27]. At least two LCYBs and two LCYEs are present in tomatoes, papaya, and citrus. The LCYB1 gene of tomato is highly expressed in vegetative tissues, while the LCYB2 gene is significantly expressed in fruits and flowers [28,29,30,31]. However, few reports about goji carotenoid metabolism exist. Zhao, et al. [32] cloned the LcPSY, LcPDS, LcZDS, LcLCYB, LcLCYE, LcCHXE, LcZEP, and LcNCED from Lycium chinense, as those genes were constitutively expressed in the leaves, flowers, and fruits. Liu, Zeng, Sun, Wu, Hu, Shen and Wang [17] found that similar enzyme activities of PSY1, CYC-B, and CRTR-B2 were observed in red fruits (Lycium barbarum L.) and black fruits (Lycium ruthenicum Murr.), suggesting that the undetectable carotenoid content in black fruits was not due to inactivation of carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes. In addition, expression of carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4(CCD4) was higher in black fruit than in red fruit.
In the current study, we used RNA sequencing to evaluate the gene expression profiles of N1 and N1Y fruits at M1, M2, and M3 periods (Figure 3a). A total of 35,615 genes were expressed in N1 and N1Y fruits during fruit ripening. Based on the gene expression levels, we conclude that PSY1, PDS1, Z-ISO, ZDS16, crtISO4, LCYE, LCYB, CYP97A2, CYP97A3, CrtR2, VDE2, ZEP3, and NSY may play vital roles in the synthesis of carotenoids during goji fruit ripening (Figure 6a, Table S6). Furthermore, PSY1 and ZDS16 were correlated more strongly with the total carotenoid content of goji fruit than PDS1, Z-ISO, crtISO4, LCYE, LCYB, CYP97A2, CYP97A3, CrtR2, VDE2, ZEP3, and NSY (Figure 6b, Table S7). However, during fruit ripening, there was no significant difference in the expression of PSY1 and ZDS16 between N1 and N1Y (Figure 6a). Thus, variations in the expression levels of PSY1 and ZDS16 may not be the cause of the variations in carotenoids and color between N1 and N1Y fruits. Since it is unclear how zeaxanthin converts to zeaxanthin palmitate and zeaxanthin dipalmitate in goji fruit, the mechanism needs further investigation.
The regulation of plant carotenoids is challenging due to changes in concentration and composition during development. Numerous studies have demonstrated that TFs regulate carotenoid accumulation by influencing plant growth [2]. In tomato fruit, the MADS-box transcription factor RIN influences carotenoid accumulation by directly upregulating PSY1, ZISO, ZDS, and CRTISO [33,34]. Zhang, et al. [35] reported that SICMB1 regulates ethylene production and carotenoid accumulation during tomato fruit ripening via interactions with SIMADS-RIN, SIMADS1, SIAP2a, and TAGL1. In dark-grown Arabidopsis, phytochrome-interacting factor 1 (PIF1) can bind the PSY promoter and inhibit carotenoid accumulation [36]. Similarly, ethylene-responsive transcription factor AtPAP2.2 can bind to the promoters of PDS and PYS and influence carotenoid biosynthesis [11]. Yuan, et al. [37] indicated that SIWRKY35 could positively regulate the synthesis of tomato carotenoids by directly inducing SIDXS1 to rewire metabolism toward the MEP pathway. Hu, et al. [38] hypothesized that bHLH, MYB, NAC, MADS, and WRKY are involved in the biosynthesis of carotenoids and anthocyanins in Coffea arabica. There are few studies on the TFs responsible for carotenoid production in goji fruits. Yin, et al. [39] reported that two R2R3-MYBs and two BBXs may play key roles in the carotenoid biosynthesis of goji. In the present study, we analyzed the gene expression of N1 and N1Y fruit during fruit ripening by WGCNA, and seventeen WGCNA modules were identified (Figure 7a, Table S8). Among them, brown modules include PSY1 and ZDS16 (Table S8), and strongly correlate with total carotenoid, zeaxanthin, phytoene, xanthophyll, zeaxanthin dipalmitate, zeaxanthin palmitate, beta-cryptoflavin palmitate, and rubixanthin palmitate (Figure 7a). Thus, we conclude that many TFs in the brown module regulate carotenoid synthesis in goji fruit. We identified 63 TFs from the brown module (Table S10) that may be divided into 2 groups based on expression levels (Figure 8). According to the TF expression, network weight values, and correlation with PSY1 and ZDS16, we conclude that one MADS-box TF (CMB1-1) and two WRKY TFs (WRKY22-1 and WRKY22-3) may favorably influence the synthesis of carotenoids by regulating PSY1 and ZDS16. One ethylene-responsive TF (RAP2-13-like) may negatively control the synthesis of carotenoids by PSY1 and ZDS16 (Figure 9).

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Plant Materials

Ningqi 1 (N1) and the bud mutant of Ningqi 1 (N1Y) were from Center of Wolfberry Engineering Technology Research, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China. Fruits of N1 and N1Y were collected at 15 (M1, green fruit), 25 (M2, color break), and 40 (M3, ripe fruit) days after flowering. All samples were immediately ground in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80 °C until needed.

4.2. Determination of Carotenoid Content

The samples were prepared and extracted by Metware Biotechnology Co., Ltd. “http://www.metware.cn/ (accessed on 5 May 2022)” and analyzed using the ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) system. Chromatographic separation of the carotenoid extract was performed on a C30 column (2.0 mm × 100 mm, 3.0 µm, YMC Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) and analyzed by ExionLC™ AD UHPLC (AB SCIEX, Framingham, MA, USA) at 28 °C. At a flow rate of 0.8 mL/min, a binary mobile phase consisting of eluent A: methanol/acetonitrile (1:3, v/v) with 0.01% butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and 0.1% formic acid, and eluent B: methyl tert-butyl ether with 0.01% BHT, was used. The gradient was as follows: 0% B for 0–3 min; 0–42% B for 3–6 min; 42–80% B for 6–8 min; 80–95% B for 8–9 min. The column was then washed and re-equilibrated with 0% B for 2 min. The injection volume for each sample was 2 µL. Mass spectrometry ionization was performed in positive mode on a high-resolution tandem mass spectrometer-AB QTRAP 6500 System (AB SCIEX, Framingham, MA, USA) equipped with an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) turbo-ion spray interface. The parameters for APCI source operation were the same as in the previous study [5]. MRM analysis was performed by Metware Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Wuhan, China). Calibration curves for 27 standards were used to quantify carotenoids. Carotenoid standard solutions of 0.01 μg/mL, 0.05 μg/mL, 0.1 μg/mL, 0.5 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL, 5 μg/mL, 10 μg/mL, and 40 μg/mL were prepared, and the mass spectral peak intensity data of the corresponding quantitative signals of the standards at each concentration were obtained (Figure S1). Data analysis was performed using Analyst 1.6.3 software (AB SCIEX).

4.3. Transcriptomic Analysis

The transcriptomic analysis method used in this study was modified from a previous study [23]. In brief, the clean reads were mapped to the genome of goji [40] using HISAT2 [41]. Differential expression was analyzed using DESeq 2 [42], and genes that met the criteria |log2 fold change| ≥ 1 and false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.05 were classified as differentially expressed. The raw RNA-seq data are freely available from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (accession: PRJNA946044).

4.4. Quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR) Analysis

RNA extraction and qRT-PCR were performed as previously described [39]. Primers were designed using NCBI-Primer-Blast “https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/tools/primer-blast/ (accessed on 5 June 2022)” (Table S13). For each sample, three replicates were performed. Quantitative data were analyzed using the 2−ΔCT method.

4.5. Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA)

R package WGCNA [43] was used for identifying highly co-expressed gene modules with carotenoid content. WGCNA network construction and module detection were performed using an unsigned topological overlap matrix (TOM), a power β of 7, a deep split of 2, a minimum module size of 30, and a branch merge cut height of 0.25. The module eigengene value was calculated and used to evaluate the association of modules with carotenoid content in the eighteen samples.

4.6. Gene Expression Trend Analysis

R package Muffz (10.18129/B9.bioc.Mfuzz) was used to analyze gene expression trends in all samples. The c parameter was set to 6, and M-estimate was used for m.

4.7. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using Microsoft Office Excel 2013 and SPSS 20.0 (IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA), GraphPad Prism 9.0 (GraphPad Software, Inc., 7825 Fay Avenue, Suite 230, La Jolla, CA, USA), and R (http://www.r-project.org/) [44].

5. Conclusions

In the present study, the difference in carotenoid biosynthesis and color formation in N1 (red fruit) and N1Y (yellow fruit) during fruit ripening were revealed by transcriptomics and carotenoid profiling. Finally, 27 carotenoids were identified in N1 and N1Y fruits at the M1, M2, and M3 periods. Among them, M2 and M3 were the critical periods for carotenoid and color differences between N1 and N1Y fruit. The zeaxanthin in the N1 fruits was significantly converted to zeaxanthin palmitate and zeaxanthin dipalmitate from M2 to M3, while the N1Y fruits continued accumulating zeaxanthin. As a result, N1 fruits progressively take on a reddish hue, while the color of N1Y fruits appears yellow from M2 to M3. However, the mechanism of conversion of zeaxanthin into zeaxanthin palmitate and zeaxanthin dipalmitate in goji fruits necessitates further investigation. Our findings from WGCNA analysis, gene trend analysis, and correlation analysis suggest that PSY1 and ZDS1 may be crucial genes in the synthesis of carotenoids during goji fruit ripening. Additionally, there are four TFs (CMB1-1, WRKY22-1, WRKY22-3, and RAP2-13-like) that may be involved in the carotenoid biosynthesis of goji fruit by regulating PSY1 and ZDS1. This work provides a new understanding of the molecular network of carotenoid synthesis and explains the variations in carotenoid accumulation in different colored goji fruits.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/plants12152791/s1, Figure S1: The carotenoid standards and the raw data for quantification including calibration curves; Figure S2: The q-PCR validation of RNA-seq data; Figure S3: Fruit color of different wolfberry varieties; Table S1: Carotenoids dected in N1 and N1Y fruit at M1, M2, and M3; Table S2: The principle component analysis (PCA) of carotenoid, the samples from N1 and N1Y at M1, M2, and M3; Table S3: The RNA-sequencing data quality; Table S4: The genomic alignment of RNA-sequencing data; Table S5: List of DEGs between N1 and N1Y at different period; Table S6: Expression of genes related to carotenoid synthesis; Table S7: Carotenoids and genes correlation coefficient; Table S8: Genes list of 17 modules; Table S9: Gene expression trend analysis; Table S10: List of candidate transcription factors in the brown module; Table S11: Transcription factors and genes correlation coefficient; Table S12: The weight vlue between candidate transcription factors and genes in the brown module; Table S13: Primers for qRT-PCR in this study.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.W., W.A., K.Q. and Y.C. (Youlong Cao); investigation, R.W., W.M., H.W., Y.C. (Yongwei Chen), J.B., Y.L. and W.A.; methodology, R.W., W.M., H.W., Y.C. (Yongwei Chen), J.B., Y.L., W.A. and K.Q.; project administration, Y.C. (Youlong Cao); resources, Z.S.; software, R.W.; writing—original draft, F.W. and Z.S.; writing—review and editing, F.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was sponsored by the Natural Science Foundation of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (2022AAC03729); the Special Foundation for Agricultural Breeding of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (2018NYYZ0106); the Key R&D plan project of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (2021BEF0200101); the National Natural Science Foundation (32160062); the Autonomous innovation project of agricultural science and technology in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NGSB-2021-2-05); the sixth batch of the autonomous region youth science and technology talent promotion project in 2021.

Data Availability Statement

The raw RNA-seq data are freely available from the National Center for Biotechnology In-formation (accession: PRJNA946044).

Acknowledgments

We thank the Wuhan Metware Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Wuhan, China) for their support during the carotenoid data analysis.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Stange, C. Carotenoids in Nature—Biosynthesis, Regulation and Function; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2016; Volume 79. [Google Scholar]
  2. Yuan, H.; Zhang, J.; Nageswaran, D.; Li, L. Carotenoid metabolism and regulation in horticultural crops. Hortic. Res. 2015, 2, 15036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  3. Krinsky, N.I.; Johnson, E.J. Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease. Mol. Aspects Med. 2005, 26, 459–516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Liu, L.; Shao, Z.; Zhang, M.; Wang, Q. Regulation of carotenoid metabolism in tomato. Mol. Plant 2015, 8, 28–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  5. Liu, Y.; Lv, J.; Liu, Z.; Wang, J.; Yang, B.; Chen, W.; Ou, L.; Dai, X.; Zhang, Z.; Zou, X. Integrative analysis of metabolome and transcriptome reveals the mechanism of color formation in pepper fruit (Capsicum annuum L.). Food Chem. 2020, 306, 125629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Wetters, S.; Horn, T.; Nick, P. Goji Who? Morphological and DNA Based Authentication of a “Superfood”. Front. Plant Sci. 2018, 9, 1859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Inbaraj, B.S.; Lu, H.; Hung, C.F.; Wu, W.B.; Lin, C.L.; Chen, B.H. Determination of carotenoids and their esters in fruits of Lycium barbarum Linnaeus by HPLC-DAD-APCI-MS. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2008, 47, 812–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Karioti, A.; Bergonzi, M.C.; Vincieri, F.F.; Bilia, A.R. Validated method for the analysis of goji berry, a rich source of zeaxanthin dipalmitate. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 12529–12535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Peng, Y.; Ma, C.; Li, Y.; Leung, K.S.; Jiang, Z.H.; Zhao, Z. Quantification of zeaxanthin dipalmitate and total carotenoids in Lycium fruits (Fructus Lycii). Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2005, 60, 161–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Tadmor, Y.; King, S.; Levi, A.; Davis, A.; Meir, A.; Wasserman, B.; Hirschberg, J.; Lewinsohn, E. Comparative fruit colouration in watermelon and tomato. Food Res. Int. 2005, 38, 837–841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ronen, G.; Carmel-Goren, L.; Zamir, D.; Hirschberg, J. An alternative pathway to beta-carotene formation in plant chromoplasts discovered by map-based cloning of beta and old-gold color mutations in tomato. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 20, 111102–111107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Fray, R.G.; Grierson, D. Identification and genetic analysis of normal and mutant phytoene synthase genes of tomato by sequencing, complementation and co-suppression. Plant Mol. Biol. 1993, 22, 589–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Rodriguez-Uribe, L.; Guzman, I.; Rajapakse, W.; Richins, R.D.; O’Connell, M.A. Carotenoid accumulation in orange-pigmented Capsicum annuum fruit, regulated at multiple levels. J. Exp. Bot. 2012, 63, 517–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  14. Guzman, I.; Hamby, S.; Romero, J.; Bosland, P.W.; O’Connell, M.A. Variability of Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Orange Colored Capsicum spp. Plant Sci. 2010, 179, 49–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  15. Just, B.J.; Santos, C.A.; Yandell, B.S.; Simon, P.W. Major QTL for carrot color are positionally associated with carotenoid biosynthetic genes and interact epistatically in a domesticated x wild carrot cross. Theor. Appl. Genet. 2009, 119, 1155–1169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Nakkanong, K.; Yang, J.H.; Zhang, M.F. Carotenoid accumulation and carotenogenic gene expression during fruit development in novel interspecific inbred squash lines and their parents. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2012, 60, 5936–5944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Liu, Y.L.; Zeng, S.H.; Sun, W.; Wu, M.; Hu, W.M.; Shen, X.F.; Wang, Y. Comparative analysis of carotenoid accumulation in two goji (Lycium barbarum L. and L. ruthenicum Murr.) fruits. BMC Plant Biol. 2014, 14, 1–14. [Google Scholar]
  18. Zhao, J.; Li, H.; Yin, Y.; An, W.; Qin, X.; Wang, Y.; Li, Y.; Fan, Y.; Cao, Y. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of Lycium ruthenicum and Lycium barbarum fruits during ripening. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 4354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Cao, Y.L.; Li, Y.L.; Fan, Y.F.; Li, Z.; Yoshida, K.; Wang, J.Y.; Ma, X.K.; Wang, N.; Mitsuda, N.; Kotake, T.; et al. Wolfberry genomes and the evolution of Lycium (Solanaceae). Commun. Biol. 2021, 4, 671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Kim, D.; Langmead, B.; Salzberg, S.L. HISAT: A fast spliced aligner with low memory requirements. Nat. Methods 2015, 12, 357–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. Varet, H.; Brillet-Gueguen, L.; Coppee, J.Y.; Dillies, M.A. SARTools: A DESeq2- and EdgeR-Based R Pipeline for Comprehensive Differential Analysis of RNA-Seq Data. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0157022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Yin, Y.; Guo, C.; Shi, H.; Zhao, J.; Ma, F.; An, W.; He, X.; Luo, Q.; Cao, Y.; Zhan, X. Genome-Wide Comparative Analysis of the R2R3-MYB Gene Family in Five Solanaceae Species and Identification of Members Regulating Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Wolfberry. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 2259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Langfelder, P.; Horvath, S. WGCNA: An R package for weighted correlation network analysis. BMC Bioinform. 2008, 9, 559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  24. Wang, S.; Tu, H.; Wan, J.; Chen, W.; Liu, X.; Luo, J.; Xu, J.; Zhang, H. Spatio-temporal distribution and natural variation of metabolites in citrus fruits. Food Chem. 2016, 199, 8–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Teixeira, F.; Silva, A.M.; Delerue-Matos, C.; Rodrigues, F. Lycium barbarum Berries (Solanaceae) as Source of Bioactive Compounds for Healthy Purposes: A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 4777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Lv, P.; Li, N.; Liu, H.; Gu, H.; Zhao, W.E. Changes in carotenoid profiles and in the expression pattern of the genes in carotenoid metabolisms during fruit development and ripening in four watermelon cultivars. Food Chem. 2015, 174, 52–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Rodriguez-Concepcion, M.; Stange, C. Biosynthesis of carotenoids in carrot: An underground story comes to light. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2013, 539, 110–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Schweiggert, R.M.; Steingass, C.B.; Heller, A.; Esquivel, P.; Carle, R. Characterization of chromoplasts and carotenoids of red- and yellow-fleshed papaya (Carica papaya L.). Planta 2011, 234, 1031–1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Li, L.; Paolillo, D.J.; Parthasarathy, M.V.; Dimuzio, E.M.; Garvin, D.F. A novel gene mutation that confers abnormal patterns of beta-carotene accumulation in cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis). Plant J. 2001, 26, 59–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Sun, T.; Yuan, H.; Cao, H.; Yazdani, M.; Tadmor, Y.; Li, L. Carotenoid Metabolism in Plants: The Role of Plastids. Mol. Plant 2018, 11, 58–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Peng, G.; Wang, C.; Song, S.; Fu, X.; Azam, M.; Grierson, D.; Xu, C. The role of 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase and phytoene synthase gene family in citrus carotenoid accumulation. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2013, 71, 67–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Fantini, E.; Falcone, G.; Frusciante, S.; Giliberto, L.; Giuliano, G. Dissection of tomato lycopene biosynthesis through virus-induced gene silencing. Plant Physiol. 2013, 163, 986–998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Fanciullino, A.L.; Dhuique-Mayer, C.; Luro, F.; Morillon, R.; Ollitrault, P. Carotenoid biosynthetic pathway in the citrus genus: Number of copies and phylogenetic diversity of seven genes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 18, 7405–7417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Zhang, L.; Ma, G.; Kato, M.; Yamawaki, K.; Takagi, T.; Kiriiwa, Y.; Ikoma, Y.; Matsumoto, H.; Yoshioka, T.; Nesumi, H. Regulation of carotenoid accumulation and the expression of carotenoid metabolic genes in citrus juice sacs in vitro. J. Exp. Bot. 2012, 63, 871–886. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Mendes, A.F.; Chen, C.; Gmitter, F.G., Jr.; Moore, G.A.; Costa, M.G. Expression and phylogenetic analysis of two new lycopene beta-cyclases from Citrus paradisi. Physiol. Plant 2011, 141, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Devitt, L.C.; Fanning, K.; Dietzgen, R.G.; Holton, T.A. Isolation and functional characterization of a lycopene beta-cyclase gene that controls fruit colour of papaya (Carica papaya L.). J. Exp. Bot. 2010, 61, 33–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Zhao, S.; Tuan, P.A.; Kim, J.K.; Park, W.T.; Kim, Y.B.; Arasu, M.V.; Al-Dhabi, N.A.; Yang, J.; Li, C.H.; Park, S.U. Molecular characterization of carotenoid biosynthetic genes and carotenoid accumulation in Lycium chinense. Molecules 2014, 19, 11250–11262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  38. Fujisawa, M.; Nakano, T.; Shima, Y.; Ito, Y. A large-scale identification of direct targets of the tomato MADS box transcription factor RIPENING INHIBITOR reveals the regulation of fruit ripening. Plant Cell 2013, 25, 371–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Martel, C.; Vrebalov, J.; Tafelmeyer, P.; Giovannoni, J.J. The tomato MADS-box transcription factor RIPENING INHIBITOR interacts with promoters involved in numerous ripening processes in a COLORLESS NONRIPENING-dependent manner. Plant Physiol. 2011, 157, 1568–1579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Zhang, J.; Hu, Z.; Yao, Q.; Guo, X.; Nguyen, V.; Li, F.; Chen, G. A tomato MADS-box protein, SlCMB1, regulates ethylene biosynthesis and carotenoid accumulation during fruit ripening. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 3413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Toledo-Ortiz, G.; Huq, E.; Rodriguez-Concepcion, M. Direct regulation of phytoene synthase gene expression and carotenoid biosynthesis by phytochrome-interacting factors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 11626–11631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Welsch, R.; Maass, D.; Voegel, T.; Dellapenna, D.; Beyer, P. Transcription factor RAP2.2 and its interacting partner SINAT2: Stable elements in the carotenogenesis of Arabidopsis leaves. Plant Physiol. 2007, 145, 1073–1085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  43. Yuan, Y.; Ren, S.; Liu, X.; Su, L.; Wu, Y.; Zhang, W.; Li, Y.; Jiang, Y.; Wang, H.; Fu, R.; et al. SlWRKY35 positively regulates carotenoid biosynthesis by activating the MEP pathway in tomato fruit. New Phytol. 2022, 234, 164–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Hu, F.; Bi, X.; Liu, H.; Fu, X.; Li, Y.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, X.; Wu, R.; Li, G.; Lv, Y.; et al. Transcriptome and carotenoid profiling of different varieties of Coffea arabica provides insights into fruit color formation. Plant Divers. 2022, 44, 322–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Plants 12 02791 g001 550
Figure 1. The change in carotenoid content in the fruits of N1 and N1Y in the different ripening periods. (a) The phenotype of N1 and N1Y fruits. (b) Comparison of total carotenoid content of N1 and N1Y fruits in different periods. Small letters indicate that N1 or N1Y have significant differences between M1, M2, and M3 (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; * means a significant difference between N1 and N1Y at M1, M2, and M3 periods (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; NS means no significant difference. (c) Principal component analysis for carotenoid content of N1 and N1Y fruits at the M1, M2, and M3 periods.
Figure 1. The change in carotenoid content in the fruits of N1 and N1Y in the different ripening periods. (a) The phenotype of N1 and N1Y fruits. (b) Comparison of total carotenoid content of N1 and N1Y fruits in different periods. Small letters indicate that N1 or N1Y have significant differences between M1, M2, and M3 (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; * means a significant difference between N1 and N1Y at M1, M2, and M3 periods (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; NS means no significant difference. (c) Principal component analysis for carotenoid content of N1 and N1Y fruits at the M1, M2, and M3 periods.
Plants 12 02791 g001
Plants 12 02791 g002 550
Figure 2. The change in individual carotenoid content in N1 and N1Y fruits at different ripening stages. Small letters indicate that N1 or N1Y have significant differences between M1, M2, and M3 (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; * means a significant difference between N1 and N1Y at M1, M2, and M3 periods (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; NS means no significant difference. The green, orange, and red asterisks represent the primary carotenoid of N1 and N1Y fruits at the M1, M2, and M3 periods, respectively.
Figure 2. The change in individual carotenoid content in N1 and N1Y fruits at different ripening stages. Small letters indicate that N1 or N1Y have significant differences between M1, M2, and M3 (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; * means a significant difference between N1 and N1Y at M1, M2, and M3 periods (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; NS means no significant difference. The green, orange, and red asterisks represent the primary carotenoid of N1 and N1Y fruits at the M1, M2, and M3 periods, respectively.
Plants 12 02791 g002
Plants 12 02791 g003 550
Figure 3. Transcriptome profiles of N1 and N1Y fruit at different stages of ripening. (a) The principal component analysis for the gene expression of N1 and N1Y fruits at M1, M2, and M3. (b) The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between N1 and N1Y at M1, M2, and M3. (c) The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of N1 between M1, M2, and M3. (d) The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of N1Y between M1, M2, and M3.
Figure 3. Transcriptome profiles of N1 and N1Y fruit at different stages of ripening. (a) The principal component analysis for the gene expression of N1 and N1Y fruits at M1, M2, and M3. (b) The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between N1 and N1Y at M1, M2, and M3. (c) The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of N1 between M1, M2, and M3. (d) The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of N1Y between M1, M2, and M3.
Plants 12 02791 g003
Plants 12 02791 g004 550
Figure 4. The Venn diagram and KEGG enrichment diagram depict the common DEGs among various samples. (a) N1-M1 vs. N1-M2, N1-M vs. N1-M3, and N1-M2 vs. N1-M3. (b) N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M2, N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M3, and N1Y-M2 vs. N1Y-M3. (c) N1-M1vs. N1-M2, N1-M1 vs. N1-M3, N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M2, and N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M3.
Figure 4. The Venn diagram and KEGG enrichment diagram depict the common DEGs among various samples. (a) N1-M1 vs. N1-M2, N1-M vs. N1-M3, and N1-M2 vs. N1-M3. (b) N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M2, N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M3, and N1Y-M2 vs. N1Y-M3. (c) N1-M1vs. N1-M2, N1-M1 vs. N1-M3, N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M2, and N1Y-M1 vs. N1Y-M3.
Plants 12 02791 g004
Plants 12 02791 g005 550
Figure 5. The changes in expression of genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway during ripening of goji fruit. The black background indicates that the substance can be detected in N1 and N1Y fruits. The font color represents the substance color.
Figure 5. The changes in expression of genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway during ripening of goji fruit. The black background indicates that the substance can be detected in N1 and N1Y fruits. The font color represents the substance color.
Plants 12 02791 g005
Plants 12 02791 g006 550
Figure 6. The heatmap of the differences in gene expression in different samples (a). The heatmap of the correlation between genes and total carotenoid content (b). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. *** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level. **** Correlation is significant at the 0.0001 level.
Figure 6. The heatmap of the differences in gene expression in different samples (a). The heatmap of the correlation between genes and total carotenoid content (b). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. *** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level. **** Correlation is significant at the 0.0001 level.
Plants 12 02791 g006
Plants 12 02791 g007 550
Figure 7. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) modules of carotenoid biosynthesis in ripening goji fruit (a). Gene expression trends analysis of N1 and N1Y fruits during ripening (b).
Figure 7. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) modules of carotenoid biosynthesis in ripening goji fruit (a). Gene expression trends analysis of N1 and N1Y fruits during ripening (b).
Plants 12 02791 g007
Plants 12 02791 g008 550
Figure 8. The heatmap of transcription factors expression differences during goji fruit repining.
Figure 8. The heatmap of transcription factors expression differences during goji fruit repining.
Plants 12 02791 g008
Plants 12 02791 g009 550
Figure 9. Patterns of transcription factor regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in goji fruit. The black background indicates that the substance can be detected in N1 and N1Y fruits. The font color represents the substance color. Small letters indicate that N1 or N1Y have significant differences between M1, M2, and M3 (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; * means a significant difference between N1 and N1Y at M1, M2, and M3 periods (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; NS means no significant difference.
Figure 9. Patterns of transcription factor regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in goji fruit. The black background indicates that the substance can be detected in N1 and N1Y fruits. The font color represents the substance color. Small letters indicate that N1 or N1Y have significant differences between M1, M2, and M3 (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; * means a significant difference between N1 and N1Y at M1, M2, and M3 periods (p < 0.05), as analyzed by Duncan’s multiple tests; NS means no significant difference.
Plants 12 02791 g009
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Wei, F.; Wan, R.; Shi, Z.; Ma, W.; Wang, H.; Chen, Y.; Bo, J.; Li, Y.; An, W.; Qin, K.; et al. Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Reveal the Critical Genes of Carotenoid Biosynthesis and Color Formation of Goji (Lycium barbarum L.) Fruit Ripening. Plants 2023, 12, 2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12152791

AMA Style

Wei F, Wan R, Shi Z, Ma W, Wang H, Chen Y, Bo J, Li Y, An W, Qin K, et al. Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Reveal the Critical Genes of Carotenoid Biosynthesis and Color Formation of Goji (Lycium barbarum L.) Fruit Ripening. Plants. 2023; 12(15):2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12152791

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wei, Feng, Ru Wan, Zhigang Shi, Wenli Ma, Hao Wang, Yongwei Chen, Jianhua Bo, Yunxiang Li, Wei An, Ken Qin, and et al. 2023. "Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Reveal the Critical Genes of Carotenoid Biosynthesis and Color Formation of Goji (Lycium barbarum L.) Fruit Ripening" Plants 12, no. 15: 2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12152791

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop