Response of Soil Microenvironment and Crop Growth to Cyclic Irrigation Using Reclaimed Water and Brackish Water
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Variations in Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil under Cyclic Irrigation
2.1.1. Soil Moisture Content and EC
2.1.2. Contents of Water-Soluble Na+ and Cl− in Soil
2.1.3. SOM and WDPT of Soil
2.2. Soil Enzyme Activity
2.3. Risk Analysis of Secondary Soil Salinization
2.4. Physiological and Growth Characteristics of Crops
2.4.1. Biomass of Crops
2.4.2. Chlorophyll Content
2.5. Antioxidant Characteristics of Crops
2.5.1. Antioxidant Enzymes of Leaves
2.5.2. MDA
2.5.3. Soluble Protein Content
2.6. Distribution of Na+ in Soil–Crop
2.6.1. Na+ Content in Soil and Leaves
2.6.2. Accumulation of Na+ in Soil and Na+ Uptake Efficiency of Leaves
3. Discussion
3.1. Response of Soil Physicochemical Properties to RBCI
3.2. Response of Secondary Soil Salinization to RBCI
3.3. Response of Growth and Physiological Index of Crops to RBCI
3.4. Response of Antioxidant Enzymes of Leaves to RBCI
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Tested Soil
4.2. Experimental Device and Scheme
4.3. Measured Indices and Methods
- (1)
- Physicochemical properties of soil. After crop harvest, soil samples were collected and then air-dried, ground and sieved (2 mm). The soil moisture content was measured with the oven-drying method. The soil sample was extracted with a soil-to-water ratio of 1:5. Then, the extracts were used to measure the electrical conductivity (EC) with a conductivity meter, Na+ by flame photometry, Cl− by AgNO3 titration, and the soil organic matter (SOM) was determined using a low-temperature external-heat potassium dichromate oxidation-colorimetric method according to the methods of [82]; the water drop penetration time (WDPT) was measured via the water drop penetration time method according to the methods of [22].
- (2)
- Soil salinization index. The soil pH, exchangeable ions, exchangeable soil sodium percentage (ESP) and effective action exchange capacity (ECEC) were determined and calculated according to the methods of [83].
- (3)
- Soil enzyme activity. The activities of soil alkaline phosphatase (S-AKP/ALP) were determined with detection kits (Solarbio, Beijing), and the daily release of 1 nmol phenol per gram of soil at 37 °C was used as an enzyme activity unit. The soil sucrase (S-SC) activity was determined using 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid colorimetry, and its activity was expressed as milligrams of 1 g of soil glucose after 24 h. The activity of soil urease (S-UE) was determined with indophenol-blue colorimetry, and its activity was expressed by the number of milligrams of NH3-N in 1 g of soil after 24 h.
- (4)
- Growth and physiological index of crop. After harvesting (14 December), the aboveground fresh weight (AFW), aboveground dry weight (ADW), underground fresh weight (UFW) and underground dry weight (UDW) were determined, referring to the methods described in [84]. A detection kit (Suolebao, Beijing) was used to measure the leaf chlorophyll contents.
- (5)
- Antioxidant index of crop. Using methods outlined in [84], the soluble protein content, catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) activities and malondialdehyde (MDA) content were determined.
- (6)
- Na+ content in leaves. The Na+ content in leaves was determined via a flame photometer method.
4.4. Data Analysis
5. Conclusions
- (1)
- Compared with FBCI, the soil water content increased without a significant level, while the soil EC, sodium and chloride ions contents improved obviously under RBCI. The contents of soil EC, sodium and chloride ions gradually declined, while the soil moisture content decreased gradually as irrigation times were increased using reclaimed water under RBCI.
- (2)
- The responses of different soil enzyme activities to RBCI were different. As irrigation times increased using reclaimed water, the difference in S-UE activity reached a significant level; for the same irrigation sequence, the activities of soil alkaline phosphatase, sucrase and urease increased with the increase in salinity in brackish water.
- (3)
- RBCI can alleviate the risk of secondary soil salinization to some extent. The soil pH values were all below 8.5 without any soil alkalization risk. The ESP did not exceed 15%, and there was no possible risk of soil alkalization except that the ESP of B3 and B5 went beyond the limit of 15%.
- (4)
- Neither the aboveground or underground biomass reached an obvious difference between FBCI and RBCI. RBCI was conducive to improving the aboveground biomass compared to irrigating crops with brackish water.
- (5)
- Cyclic irrigation using reclaimed-reclaimed-brackish water at 3 g·L−1 was recommended under the experimental conditions.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Treatment | Na+ Content/(mg·kg−1) | Cl− Content/(mg·kg−1) |
---|---|---|
B3 | 676.67 ± 68.25 b | 175.92 ± 17.68 b |
FB3 | 230.00 ± 8.66 ef | 96.90 ± 0.68 ef |
RB3 | 351.67 ± 2.89 d | 112.55 ± 1.33 de |
FFB3 | 152.17 ± 0.76 f | 95.71 ± 0.77 ef |
RRB3 | 338.33 ± 23.09 d | 107.83 ± 0.93 de |
B5 | 1098.33 ± 146.32 a | 257.75 ± 9.57 a |
FB5 | 398.33 ± 7.64 d | 131.31 ± 1.79 c |
RB5 | 480.00 ± 13.23 c | 132.79 ± 1.11 c |
FFB5 | 231.67 ± 7.64 ef | 105.61 ± 2.71 e |
RRB5 | 425.00 ± 5.00 cd | 118.61 ± 3.58 d |
R | 235.00 ± 5.00 e | 93.21 ± 7.29 f |
F | 43.67 ± 1.04 g | 61.74 ± 3.69 g |
Treatment | S-AKP/ALP Activity /(U·g−1) | S-SC Activity /(mg·g−1·24 h−1) | S-UE Activity /(mg·g−1·24 h−1) |
---|---|---|---|
B3 | 2105.95 ± 344.81 bc | 9.59 ± 0.40 c | 0.39 ± 0.01 e |
FB3 | 1881.55 ± 431.21 c | 11.37 ± 0.44 ab | 0.46 ± 0.00 c |
RB3 | 2744.64 ± 719.43 b | 10.73 ± 0.26 bc | 0.42 ± 0.01 d |
FFB3 | 2641.07 ± 773.33 bc | 10.91 ± 0.64 bc | 0.45 ± 0.01 c |
RRB3 | 2623.81 ± 837.16 bc | 12.16 ± 1.16 a | 0.44 ± 0.01 c |
B5 | 2313.09 ± 367.4 bc | 10.43 ± 0.55 bc | 0.39 ± 0.01 e |
FB5 | 3935.71 ± 499.41 a | 10.04 ± 0.84 bc | 0.48 ± 0.01 b |
RB5 | 3521.43 ± 404.46 ab | 11.69 ± 0.41 ab | 0.45 ± 0.01 c |
FFB5 | 2364.88 ± 239.18 bc | 11.71 ± 0.68 ab | 0.48 ± 0.01 b |
RRB5 | 2606.55 ± 374.63 bc | 10.92 ± 0.89 bc | 0.51 ± 0.02 a |
R | 3901.19 ± 528.96 a | 11.01 ± 0.39 b | 0.45 ± 0.02 c |
F | 3348.81 ± 29.9 ab | 10.86 ± 1.13 bc | 0.41 ± 0.01 de |
Treatment | Content of Chlorophyll a/(mg·g−1) | Content of Chlorophyll b/(mg·g−1) | Content of Total Chlorophyll/(mg·g−1) |
---|---|---|---|
B3 | 1.67 ± 0.18 ab | 0.43 ± 0.01 cd | 2.1 ± 0.18 ab |
FB3 | 1.5 ± 0.08 b | 0.47 ± 0.02 c | 1.96 ± 0.1 b |
RB3 | 1.92 ± 0.14 a | 0.52 ± 0.02 b | 2.44 ± 0.13 a |
FFB3 | 1.59 ± 0.08 ab | 0.5 ± 0.02 bc | 2.08 ± 0.1 ab |
RRB3 | 1.73 ± 0.03 ab | 0.56 ± 0.07 a | 2.29 ± 0.1 ab |
B5 | 1.78 ± 0.11 ab | 0.44 ± 0.01 cd | 2.22 ± 0.1 ab |
FB5 | 1.65 ± 0.07 ab | 0.49 ± 0.02 bc | 2.14 ± 0.09 ab |
RB5 | 1.78 ± 0.29 ab | 0.47 ± 0.02 c | 2.25 ± 0.29 ab |
FFB5 | 1.46 ± 0.07 b | 0.46 ± 0.02 c | 1.92 ± 0.09 b |
RRB5 | 1.77 ± 0.3 ab | 0.45 ± 0.02 cd | 2.21 ± 0.29 ab |
R | 1.62 ± 0.38 ab | 0.44 ± 0.02 cd | 2.07 ± 0.39 b |
F | 1.85 ± 0.26 a | 0.41 ± 0.03 d | 2.26 ± 0.25 ab |
Treatment | Na+ Content in Soil/(mg·g−1) | Na+ Content in Leaf/(mg·g−1) |
---|---|---|
B3 | 0.68 ± 0.0683 b | 15.07 ± 0.26 b |
FB3 | 0.23 ± 0.0087 ef | 10.01 ± 0.04 e |
RB3 | 0.35 ± 0.0029 d | 12.36 ± 0.33 cd |
FFB3 | 0.15 ± 0.0008 f | 11.60 ± 0.43 d |
RRB3 | 0.34 ± 0.0231 d | 12.43 ± 0.25 cd |
B5 | 1.1 ± 0.1463 a | 17.85 ± 1.26 a |
FB5 | 0.4 ± 0.0076 cd | 14.63 ± 0.54 b |
RB5 | 0.48 ± 0.0132 c | 14.34 ± 1.06 b |
FFB5 | 0.23 ± 0.0076 ef | 12.86 ± 0.83 c |
RRB5 | 0.43 ± 0.005 cd | 13.01 ± 0.67 c |
R | 0.24 ± 0.005 e | 10.02 ± 0.18 e |
F | 0.04 ± 0.001 g | 6.85 ± 0.73 f |
Treatment | B3 | FB3 | FFB3 | B5 | FB5 | FFB5 | F | RB3 | RRB3 | RB5 | RRB5 | R |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Irrigation water | BW3 | FW- BW3 | FW-FW- BW3 | BW5 | FW- BW5 | FW-FW- BW5 | FW | RW- BW3 | RW-RW- BW3 | RW- BW5 | RW-RW- BW5 | RW |
Water Source | EC | pH | Na+ | K+ | HCO3− | Cl− | Ca2+ | Mg2+ | SO42− | SAR | TN | TP | Pb | Cu | Zn | Cd |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FW | 321 | 8.31 | 0.4 | 0.04 | 1.96 | 0.85 | 0.98 | 0.61 | 1.08 | 0.34 | 1.17 | 0.02 | - | - | - | - |
RW | 2120 | 8.17 | 13.5 | 0.36 | 4.56 | 8.85 | 2.28 | 3.10 | 5.28 | 5.81 | 0.52 | 0.05 | - | - | - | - |
BW3 | 6100 | 8.41 | 57.8 | 0.05 | 2.32 | 54.20 | 1.08 | 0.71 | 0.96 | 43.21 | 1.31 | 0.02 | - | - | - | - |
BW5 | 9432 | 8.44 | 87.0 | 0.07 | 2.28 | 90.90 | 0.92 | 0.77 | 1.14 | 66.86 | 1.18 | 0.02 | - | - | - | - |
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© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Liu, C.; Wang, J.; Huang, P.; Hu, C.; Gao, F.; Liu, Y.; Li, Z.; Cui, B. Response of Soil Microenvironment and Crop Growth to Cyclic Irrigation Using Reclaimed Water and Brackish Water. Plants 2023, 12, 2285. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12122285
Liu C, Wang J, Huang P, Hu C, Gao F, Liu Y, Li Z, Cui B. Response of Soil Microenvironment and Crop Growth to Cyclic Irrigation Using Reclaimed Water and Brackish Water. Plants. 2023; 12(12):2285. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12122285
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Chuncheng, Juan Wang, Pengfei Huang, Chao Hu, Feng Gao, Yuan Liu, Zhongyang Li, and Bingjian Cui. 2023. "Response of Soil Microenvironment and Crop Growth to Cyclic Irrigation Using Reclaimed Water and Brackish Water" Plants 12, no. 12: 2285. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12122285