Estimation of Air Pollutant Emissions by Tractor Utilization in Korea
1
Department of Bioindustrial Machinery Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Agricultural Machinery Engineering, Graduate School, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
3
Institute for Agricultural Machinery & ICT Convergence, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
4
Department of Agricultural Convergence Technology, Graduate School, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2023, 13(9), 1811; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091811
Submission received: 20 July 2023
/
Revised: 27 August 2023
/
Accepted: 11 September 2023
/
Published: 14 September 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)
Abstract
:The utilization of tractors is essential because of both the shortage of agricultural labor forces and the rapid aging of farmers in Korean agriculture. Tractors can be classified into two types: a walking tractor called as a power tiller, and a riding tractor. In this study, diesel emission inventories of tractors were established and variations of air pollutants were analyzed with each other using 2011 and 2019 survey data in Korea. Agricultural tractors including walking and riding types, which were categorized into three levels via the rated output power, were the main sources of diesel emissions. The emission inventory including CO, NOx, SOx, TSP(PM10), PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 were established using a Tier 3 methodology. The total amount of emissions using agricultural tractors was decreased by about 13% from 2011 to 2019. The number of walking tractors were decreased by about 19% in 8 years; on the other hand, that of riding tractors were increased by about 12%. However, the emission reduction is about 48% for walking tractors, and the emission increment is about 5% for riding tractors. Thus, the total emission from agricultural tractors was decreased by about 16% in those periods. It is due to the decrease of 21% and 15% in the hours of use of walking and riding tractors, respectively, in 2019. Walking tractors mainly emit air pollutants from spraying and transporting. Riding tractors emit about 61% of the total air pollutants mainly from soil preparation and transporting operations. The geographic information system (GIS) was used to visualize the distribution of air pollutants in Korea. High-emission generating regions and the changes of emissions over 8 years were clearly seen in the GIS analysis. High air-pollutant emitting regions are mainly located in the western and southern regions of Korea, which have plenty of arable areas compared to other regions in Korea.
1. Introduction
In 2019, the total cultivated acreage in Korea was 1,643,465 ha, and the amounts of agricultural production were 4375 × 103, 8186 × 103, 2206 × 103, and 65 × 103 tons for grain crops, vegetables, fruits, and specialty crops, respectively [1,2]. Due to the decline of agricultural labor forces and the rapid aging of farmers, the utilization of a variety of agricultural machinery is expanding rapidly in Korea. Compared to a decade ago, Korean farmers are now using bigger and more powerful tractors [3]. The mechanization rate of rice farming is more than 99%, and that of the other major agricultural works in open field farming is about 62% on average in 2019 [4].
The tractor is a multi-purpose vehicle that performs major agricultural operations while driving with various implements such as a plow, a rotary, or a baler, and it is frequently used in Korean agriculture [5,6]. Tractors are used to perform many agricultural practices such as tillage, harrowing, fertilizer, compost spreading, transportation in almost every agricultural sector of grain, vegetable, and fruit production, and livestock husbandry. Tractors usually use diesel as a fuel and emit a lot of pollutant substances which are primary and secondary sources of particulate matter (PM) and other air pollutants. PM is considered as one of the most concerning air pollutants due to its effect on human health and the environment both in urban and rural areas [7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. The non-road mobile machinery sector including tractors largely contributes to the emissions of PM10 and PM2.5, being responsible for 7.4% and 16.4% of the total emissions, respectively [14].
An emission inventory can show the temporal and spatial distributions and changes in pollutants in a certain area over a period of time. Currently, the global level non-road machinery activities and emission data are difficult to obtain, and the development of emission models and inventories is still being undertaken. Only the NONROAD model, developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), has been widely used [15].
Mobile sources can exhaust many kinds of pollutants including sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), total hydrocarbons (THC), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (PM) during the process of fuel combustion. These pollutants can cause direct or indirect adverse influences on air pollution [16,17,18], human health [19,20], and climate change [21,22,23]. For example, emitted PM could directly increase the atmospheric particulate matter with a diameter below 2.5 μm (PM2.5) concentrations; as important fine particle precursors, SO2 and NOx can transform into sulfate and nitrate, making a secondary contribution to PM2.5 [24,25].
In this study, refined diesel emission inventories for agricultural tractors including two-wheeled driving (2WD) and four-wheeled driving (4WD) tractors were established and variations of air pollutants were analyzed with each other using 2011 and 2019 data in Korea by categorizing tractors in terms of their rated powers. Also, the emission characteristics of seven air pollutants from various field operations were analyzed. In addition, the spatial distribution of the amount of eight pollutants was visualized via the geographic information system (GIS) and was investigated on a country scale.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Calculation of Air Pollutant Amounts Emitted from Agricultural Tractor Operation
The emitted amounts of seven air pollutant substances due to tractor operation were calculated via the method of NIER [26]. The formula is shown in Equation (1):
where Ei,j,k is the total amount of air pollutants emitted from a specific region (kg/yr); Ni,k is the number of machinery in the specific region (unit); HPi is the average rated power of the tractor (kw); LF is the load factor (=0.48); HRSi is the average annual activity of the tractor (hr/yr); EFi,j is the emission factor (kg/(kWh-unit)); i is the farm tractor type (walking and riding) (i = 1, ···, 4); j is the type of air pollutant (j = 1, ···, 8); and k is the region (k = 1, ···,10).
Ei,j,k = ∑{Ni,k × HPi × LF × HRSi × EFi,j}
The NIER handbook gives the emission factors for CO, NOx, TSP, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3, but the following equation is used to calculate the emission factor for SOx [21].
where EFi is the emission factor (kg/(kWh-unit)); FFi is the fuel factor (g/(kWh-unit)); l is the constant (=2.0) (grams of SOx formed from one gram of sulfur); and i is the farm tractor type (i = 1, ···, 4).
EFi = FFi (g/kWh-unit)/1000 × l × (Fuel sulfur weight %/100)
2.2. Average Rated Power and Number of Agricultural Tractors
From the agricultural machinery statistics by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA) of Korea, the number of agricultural tractors was categorized into two groups: a power tiller called as a walking (two-wheeled) tractor and a riding (four-wheeled) tractor. The riding tractors are further divided into three groups via their rated engine power—small, medium, and large. Table 1 shows the average rated power and relevant statistics of agricultural tractors used in Korea in 2011 and 2019 [3].
2.3. Average Annual Operating Hours of Agricultural Tractors
The average annual operating hours of agricultural tractors are given in Table 2 according to tractor types as well as some typical agricultural practices. The survey data by the Rural Development Administration (RDA) in Korea on the utilization of agricultural machinery were used to identify the average annual operating hours of agricultural tractors [27,28].
2.4. Emission and Fuel Factors of Agricultural Tractors
2.5. Geological Distribution of Air Pollutant Emissions from Agricultural Tractors
To calculate the domestic spatial distribution of the total air pollutant emissions from tractors, an open source geographic information system (GIS) software (QGIS, Version 3.10, qgis.org) was used. The total of nine provinces and one total metropolitan city (TMC), which combines and represents eight metropolitan cities, were analyzed in the study. Based on the geocoded residential addresses, individual exposure to the various variables was assessed when applying the GIS program. QGIS is a widely-used, open-source GIS visualization tool that allows users to produce, edit, visualize, and analyze spatial data. It supports the vector and raster format, as well as the database format and its functionalities.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Total Air Pollutant Emissions from Agricultural Tractors
The air pollutant emission inventory for agricultural tractors in 2011 and 2019 in Korea was calculated. Table 4 and Table 5 show that the amount of air pollutants emitted from various agricultural practices from agricultural tractors. The two main sources of air pollutants emitted from walking tractors are transporting and spraying. They emit about 81% of emissions from walking tractors. Riding tractors are heavily used in soil preparation, which emits about 42% of air pollutants, including tilling, harrowing, and leveling, for seeding and planting in Korea. Figure 1 shows the changes of cultivated land and the calculated total emissions in agricultural tractors categorized into four groups. The cultivated land for agriculture was decreased about 7% from 1,698,000 ha to 1,581,000 ha, from 2011 to 2019. However, the total amount of emissions using agricultural tractors was decreased about 13% during those periods. The main reason is that the number of power tillers were decreased by about 19% in 8 years; on the other hand, that of farm tractors were increased by about 12%. However, the emission reduction is about 48% for power tillers, and the emission increment is about 5% for farm tractors. Thus, the total emissions from agricultural tractors was decreased by about 16% in those periods. It is due to the decrease of 21% and 15% in the hours of use of walking and riding tractors, respectively, in 2019. However, the total amount of air pollutants emitted from large-size riding tractors was increased by about 33% in 2019. Recently, Korean farmers are showing a tendency of using large-size riding tractors to reduce working hours in the fields.
3.2. Amounts of Air Pollutant Emissions from Various Agricultural Tractor Operations
Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the calculated amounts of average air pollutant emissions from various agricultural operations of walking and riding tractors. Walking tractors emit air pollutants mainly from spraying and transporting operations. The transporting operation is responsible for 2639 Mg and 1429 Mg of air pollutant emissions in 2011 and 2019, respectively. Riding tractors emit air pollutants mainly from soil preparation and transporting operations. About 61% of the total air pollutants are emitted from the two operations. Particularly, the air pollutant emission amount from the loading operation was nearly doubled in 2019 compared to that in 2011. Korean farmers have made frequent use of riding tractors to load and unload heavy materials recently.
3.3. Geological and Temporal Distribution of Air Pollutant Emissions from Agricultural Tractors
The amount of air pollutants emitted by Korean agricultural tractors was calculated on a regional level. Table 6, Table 7, Table 8 and Table 9 show the calculated air pollutant emissions of 10 regions in Korea. The total emissions of CO, NOx, SOx, TSP, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 from walking tractors in 2011 were 1468 Mg, 2937 Mg, 0.77 Mg, 293 Mg, 270 Mg, 442 Mg, and 8.7 Mg, respectively. Also, the total emissions of CO, NOx, SOx, TSP, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 from walking tractors in 2019 were 857 Mg, 1617 Mg, 0.44 Mg, 189 Mg, 158 Mg, 257 Mg, and 5.0 Mg, respectively. In 2019, the walking tractor emissions of Gyeongsangbuk-do, Jeollanam-do, and Gyeongsangnam-do account for 23%, 16%, and 13% of the total emissions. The total emissions of CO, NOx, SOx, TSP, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 from riding tractors were 1816 Mg, 5744 Mg, 2.6 Mg, 287 Mg, 266 Mg, 352 Mg, and 22 Mg, respectively, in 2011 and were 1906 Mg, 6028 Mg, 2.76 Mg, 301 Mg, 276 Mg, 369 Mg, and 23.3 Mg, respectively, in 2019. Gyeongsangbuk-do and Jeollanam-do are major regions emitting about 30% and 32% of the total air pollutants utilizing walking and riding tractors in 2019.
The spatial distribution of the total amount of tractor air pollutant emissions in Korea were visualized at the regional level using a GIS technique, as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. Figure 4a shows the emissions in 2011 and Figure 4b shows the emissions in 2019 from walking tractors. Emissions from walking tractors are decreased nationwide except in Chungcheongbuk-do during those periods. Regions with high emissions are mainly southern regions such as Gyeongsangbuk-do, Jeollanam-do, and Gyeongsangnam-do. In the case of Gyeongsangbuk-do compared to other regions, it emits about 22.7% of the total air pollutants in 2019. Figure 5a,b shows the emissions from riding tractors in 2011 and 2019. Gyeongsangbuk-do and Jeollanam-do emit about 31.6% of the total air pollutants in 2019. Figure 4 and Figure 5 show that the emission of the walking tractor is decreased, but the emission of the riding tractor is increased in the Gyeongsangbuk-do region. In 2011, riding tractor emissions were in about the same range in Chungcheongnam-do, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Gyeonggi-do, and Jeollanam-do, but in 2019, the emission range in Gyeongsangbuk-do, Jeollanam-do, Chungcheongbuk-do, and Jeollabuk-do increased by one level. These high-emission areas are mainly located in the western and southern regions of Korea, which have plenty of arable areas compared to other regions in Korea. However, riding tractor emissions are much lower in Gangwon-do and Chungcheongbuk-do. This area is mainly mountainous, so there is little agricultural area to produce agricultural products. Metropolitan cities with a high population generate less emissions from agricultural tractors compared to other regions.
4. Conclusions
Agricultural tractors in Korea were categorized into four levels via the rated engine power and their air pollutants’ emission characteristics were studied using 2011 and 2019 survey data. Calculations showed that, from 2011 to 2019, the emission amounts of all seven air pollutant substances decreased. NOx was the dominant pollutant substance in emission quantity, and then CO, VOCs, TSP, and PM2.5 followed. In 2019, the calculated emission amounts of NOx, CO, VOCs, TSP, and PM2.5 from all agricultural tractors in Korea were 7730, 2760, 625, 470, and 433 Mg, respectively.
Changes in tractor holding and the annual working hours from 2011 to 2019 resulted in the reduction in the air pollutants’ emission amount by about 48% for power tillers and an increment of about 5% for riding tractors. Overall, the total air pollutant emissions from agricultural tractor use decreased by about 13% in Korea from 2011 to 2019.
Walking tractors emit air pollutants mainly from spraying and transporting operations. They are responsible for 81% of the total air pollutant emissions. Riding tractors, on the other hand, are heavily used in soil preparation work (tilling, harrowing, and leveling) for seeding and planting, and it accounts for about 42% of the total air pollutant emissions from riding tractors.
Emissions from walking tractors in 2019 decreased in all regions except one when comparing with those in 2011, but emissions from riding tractors increased or at least was steady nationwide. From 2011 to 2019, the total amount of emissions from tractors in Gyeongsangbuk-do, Jeollanam-do, and Jeollabuk-do went up by one level. These provinces are located in the western and southern part of Korea, where there are plenty of arable areas compared to other regions in Korea.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, S.M.K.; software, S.M.K.; validation, M.H.K. and S.M.K.; investigation, M.H.K. and S.M.K.; resources, M.H.K. and S.M.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M.K.; writing—review and editing, M.H.K. and S.M.K.; visualization, S.M.K.; supervision, S.M.K.; project administration, S.M.K.; funding acquisition, S.M.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This work was carried out with the support of “Study on Particulate Matter Outbreak Source Characteristics during Agricultural Practice and Inventory Integration (Project No. PJ01428301)” Rural Development Administration, Korea, and was also supported by the research funds of Jeonbuk National University in 2022.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of the data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
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Figure 1.
Changes in cultivated acreage and calculated amounts of total air pollutant emissions from walking and riding tractors.
Figure 1.
Changes in cultivated acreage and calculated amounts of total air pollutant emissions from walking and riding tractors.
Figure 2.
Calculated amounts of average air pollutant substances emitted from various agricultural operations by walking tractors in 2011 (top) and 2019 (bottom). TL: Tilling, HW: Harrowing, PP: Pumping, SY: Spraying, TP: Transporting.
Figure 2.
Calculated amounts of average air pollutant substances emitted from various agricultural operations by walking tractors in 2011 (top) and 2019 (bottom). TL: Tilling, HW: Harrowing, PP: Pumping, SY: Spraying, TP: Transporting.
Figure 3.
Calculated amounts of average air pollutant substances emitted from various agricultural operations by riding tractors in 2011 (top) and 2019 (bottom). TL: Tilling, HW: Harrowing, LL: Leveling, FS: Fertilizer spreading, LD: Loading, BL: Baling, CS: Compost spreading, TP: Transporting.
Figure 3.
Calculated amounts of average air pollutant substances emitted from various agricultural operations by riding tractors in 2011 (top) and 2019 (bottom). TL: Tilling, HW: Harrowing, LL: Leveling, FS: Fertilizer spreading, LD: Loading, BL: Baling, CS: Compost spreading, TP: Transporting.
Figure 4.
Spatial distribution of total emissions from walking tractors in 2011 (a) and 2019 (b). CHB: Chungcheongbuk–do, CHN: Chungcheongnam–do, GAW: Gangwon–do, GYB: Gyeongsangbuk–do, GYG: Gyeonggi–do, GYN: Gyeongsangnam–do, JEB: Jeollabuk–do, JEJ: Jeju–do, JEN: Jeollanam–do, TMC: Total of eight metropolitan cities.
Figure 4.
Spatial distribution of total emissions from walking tractors in 2011 (a) and 2019 (b). CHB: Chungcheongbuk–do, CHN: Chungcheongnam–do, GAW: Gangwon–do, GYB: Gyeongsangbuk–do, GYG: Gyeonggi–do, GYN: Gyeongsangnam–do, JEB: Jeollabuk–do, JEJ: Jeju–do, JEN: Jeollanam–do, TMC: Total of eight metropolitan cities.
Figure 5.
Spatial distribution of total emissions from riding tractors in 2011 (a) and 2019 (b). CHB: Chungcheongbuk–do, CHN: Chungcheongnam–do, GAW: Gangwon–do, GYB: Gyeongsangbuk–do, GYG: Gyeonggi–do, GYN: Gyeongsangnam–do, JEB: Jeollabuk–do, JEJ: Jeju–do, JEN: Jeollanam–do, TMC: Total of eight metropolitan cities.
Figure 5.
Spatial distribution of total emissions from riding tractors in 2011 (a) and 2019 (b). CHB: Chungcheongbuk–do, CHN: Chungcheongnam–do, GAW: Gangwon–do, GYB: Gyeongsangbuk–do, GYG: Gyeonggi–do, GYN: Gyeongsangnam–do, JEB: Jeollabuk–do, JEJ: Jeju–do, JEN: Jeollanam–do, TMC: Total of eight metropolitan cities.
Table 1.
Average rated power and number of agricultural tractors used in Korea.
| Tractor Type | Engine Size (Rated Power Range) | ARP 4 (kW) | Unit (ea) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2011 | 2019 | |||
| Walking Tractor | - | 6.7 | 666,897 | 544,005 |
| Riding Tractor | S 1 (S ≤ 29.4 kW) | 23.0 5 | 73,901 | 73,604 |
| M 2 (29.4 kW ≤ M < 44.1 kW) | 39.0 5 | 142,856 | 150,283 | |
| L 3 (44.1 kW ≤ L) | 52.1 5 | 51,114 | 74,793 | |
| Sub Total | - | 267,871 | 298,680 | |
1 S: Small, 2 M: Medium, 3 L: Large, 4 ARP: Average rated power. 5 ARP is defined as a weighted average value and is calculated from the number of tractors and their rated engine power.
Table 2.
Average annual operating hours of agricultural tractors.
| Tractor Type | Operation Type | Average Annual Activity (hr/yr) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2011 | 2019 | ||
| Walking Tractor | TL 1 | 3.7 | 1.4 |
| HW 2 | 6.1 | 3.8 | |
| PP 3 | 9.1 | 10.5 | |
| SY 4 | 25.2 | 19.9 | |
| TP 5 | 56.5 | 34.3 | |
| Others | 0.2 | 2.3 | |
| Total | 100.8 | 72.2 | |
| Riding Tractor | TL 1 | 21.1 | 18.1 |
| HW 2 | 31.5 | 44.6 | |
| LL 6 | 11.7 | 14.1 | |
| FS 7 | 6.9 | 8.2 | |
| CS 8 | 16.6 | 5.7 | |
| LD 9 | 13.2 | 23.4 | |
| BL 10 | 6.9 | 2.7 | |
| TP 5 | 29.1 | 14.0 | |
| Others | 13.9 | 9.1 | |
| Total | 153.7 | 139.9 | |
1 TL: Tilling, 2 HW: Harrowing, 3 PP: Pumping, 4 SY: Spraying, 5 TP: Transporting, 6 LL: Leveling, 7 FS: Fertilizer spreading, 8 CS: Compost spreading, 9 LD: Loading, 10 BL: Baling.
Table 3.
Emission factors of six air pollutants and fuel factors for SOx of agricultural tractors.
| Tractor Type | Size | Emission Factor (kg/kWh-Unit) | Fuel Factor (g/kWh-Unit) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CO | NOx | TSP 4 | PM2.5 | VOCs | NH3 | SOx | ||
| Walking Tractors | 6.80 | 13.60 | 1.36 | 1.251 | 2.04 | 0.00004 | 0.00542 | |
| Riding Tractors | S 1 | 2.48 | 7.84 | 0.39 | 0.359 | 0.48 | 0.00003 | 0.00538 |
| M 2 | 0.00530 | |||||||
| L 3 | 0.00530 | |||||||
1 S: Small, 2 M: Medium, 3 L: Large. 4 TSP includes PM10.
Table 4.
Calculated amounts of air pollutants emitted from agricultural tractor operations in 2011. unit: Mg/yr.
Table 4.
Calculated amounts of air pollutants emitted from agricultural tractor operations in 2011. unit: Mg/yr.
| Machinery | Operation Type | CO | NOx | SOx (×102) | TSP | PM2.5 | VOCs | NH3 (×10) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Walking Tractor (Power Tiller) | TL 1 | 53.9 | 107.8 | 2.88 | 10.8 | 9.9 | 16.2 | 3.17 | |
| HW 2 | 88.9 | 177.7 | 4.75 | 17.8 | 16.4 | 26.7 | 5.23 | ||
| PP 3 | 132.6 | 265 | 7.08 | 26.5 | 24.4 | 39.8 | 7.80 | ||
| SY 4 | 367 | 734 | 19.61 | 73.4 | 67.5 | 110.1 | 21.6 | ||
| TP 5 | 823 | 1646 | 44.0 | 164.6 | 151.4 | 246.9 | 48.4 | ||
| Others | 2.91 | 5.83 | 0.16 | 0.58 | 0.54 | 0.87 | 0.017 | ||
| Sub Total | 1469 | 2940 | 78.4 | 296 | 270 | 441 | 86.2 | ||
| Riding Tractor | Small | TL 1 | 42.7 | 135.1 | 6.21 | 6.7 | 6.2 | 8.3 | 5.17 |
| HW 2 | 63.9 | 202 | 9.28 | 10.0 | 9.2 | 12.4 | 7.73 | ||
| LL 6 | 23.7 | 74.9 | 3.44 | 3.7 | 3.4 | 4.6 | 2.87 | ||
| FS 7 | 14.0 | 44.2 | 2.03 | 2.2 | 2.0 | 2.7 | 1.69 | ||
| CS 8 | 33.6 | 106.3 | 4.89 | 5.3 | 4.9 | 6.5 | 4.07 | ||
| LD 9 | 26.7 | 84.5 | 3.89 | 4.2 | 3.9 | 5.2 | 3.23 | ||
| BL 10 | 19.6 | 62.1 | 2.86 | 3.1 | 2.8 | 3.8 | 2.38 | ||
| TP 5 | 58.9 | 186.3 | 8.57 | 9.3 | 8.5 | 11.4 | 7.13 | ||
| Others | 28.2 | 89.0 | 4.09 | 4.43 | 4.07 | 5.45 | 3.41 | ||
| Sub Total | 311 | 984 | 45.3 | 49.0 | 45.1 | 60.3 | 37.7 | ||
| Medium | TL 1 | 140.0 | 442 | 20.0 | 22.0 | 20.2 | 27.1 | 16.9 | |
| HW 2 | 209 | 661 | 29.9 | 32.9 | 30.3 | 40.5 | 25.3 | ||
| LL 6 | 77.6 | 245 | 11.1 | 12.2 | 11.2 | 15.0 | 9.38 | ||
| FS 7 | 45.7 | 145.0 | 6.55 | 7.19 | 6.62 | 8.85 | 5.53 | ||
| CS 8 | 110.0 | 348 | 15.8 | 17.3 | 15.9 | 21.3 | 13.30 | ||
| LD 9 | 87.5 | 277 | 12.5 | 13.8 | 12.7 | 16.9 | 10.60 | ||
| BL 10 | 64.3 | 203 | 9.21 | 10.1 | 9.31 | 12.4 | 7.78 | ||
| TP 5 | 193.0 | 610 | 27.6 | 30.3 | 27.9 | 37.3 | 23.3 | ||
| Others | 92.1 | 291 | 13.2 | 14.5 | 13.3 | 17.8 | 11.10 | ||
| Sub Total | 1019 | 3220 | 145.9 | 160.3 | 147.5 | 197.3 | 123.3 | ||
| Large | TL 1 | 66.9 | 211 | 9.57 | 10.5 | 9.68 | 12.9 | 8.09 | |
| HW 2 | 99.9 | 316 | 14.3 | 15.7 | 14.5 | 19.3 | 12.10 | ||
| LL 6 | 37.1 | 117.0 | 5.31 | 5.83 | 5.37 | 7.18 | 4.48 | ||
| FS 7 | 21.9 | 69.1 | 3.13 | 3.44 | 3.16 | 4.23 | 2.64 | ||
| CS 8 | 52.6 | 166.0 | 7.53 | 8.27 | 7.61 | 10.2 | 6.36 | ||
| LD 9 | 41.8 | 132.0 | 5.99 | 6.58 | 6.05 | 8.90 | 5.06 | ||
| BL 10 | 30.7 | 97.2 | 4.40 | 4.83 | 4.45 | 5.95 | 3.72 | ||
| TP 5 | 92.2 | 291 | 13.20 | 14.50 | 13.30 | 17.80 | 11.20 | ||
| Others | 44.0 | 139.0 | 6.31 | 6.93 | 6.38 | 8.52 | 5.33 | ||
| Sub Total | 487 | 1540 | 69.7 | 76.6 | 70.5 | 94.3 | 58.9 | ||
| Sub Total | 1818 | 5746 | 261 | 286 | 267 | 352 | 220 | ||
| Total | 3290 | 8683 | 339 | 580 | 537 | 792 | 306 | ||
1 TL: Tilling, 2 HW: Harrowing, 3 PP: Pumping, 4 SY: Spraying, 5 TP: Transporting, 6 LL: Leveling, 7 FS: Fertilizer spreading, 8 CS: Compost spreading, 9 LD: Loading, 10 BL: Baling.
Table 5.
Calculated amounts of air pollutants emitted from agricultural tractor operations in 2019. unit: Mg/yr.
Table 5.
Calculated amounts of air pollutants emitted from agricultural tractor operations in 2019. unit: Mg/yr.
| Machinery | Operation Type | CO | NOx | SOx (×102) | TSP | PM2.5 | VOCs | NH3 (×10) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Walking Tractor (Power Tiller) | TL 1 | 16.64 | 33.3 | 0.90 | 3.33 | 3.06 | 4.99 | 0.98 | |
| HW 2 | 40.4 | 80.8 | 2.20 | 8.08 | 7.43 | 12.12 | 2.38 | ||
| PP 3 | 124.8 | 250 | 6.70 | 25.0 | 23.0 | 37.4 | 7.34 | ||
| SY 4 | 237 | 473 | 12.6 | 47.3 | 43.5 | 71.0 | 13.9 | ||
| TP 5 | 408 | 815 | 21.8 | 81.5 | 75.0 | 122.3 | 24.0 | ||
| Others | 27.3 | 54.7 | 1.50 | 5.47 | 5.03 | 8.20 | 1.61 | ||
| Sub Total | 853 | 1707 | 45.6 | 170.7 | 157.0 | 256 | 50.2 | ||
| Riding Tractor | Small | TL 1 | 36.5 | 115.4 | 5.30 | 5.74 | 5.29 | 7.07 | 4.42 |
| HW 2 | 90.0 | 284 | 13.10 | 14.15 | 13.02 | 17.4 | 10.88 | ||
| LL 6 | 28.4 | 89.9 | 4.10 | 4.47 | 4.12 | 5.51 | 3.44 | ||
| FS 7 | 16.54 | 52.3 | 2.40 | 2.60 | 2.39 | 3.20 | 2.00 | ||
| CS 8 | 11.50 | 36.3 | 1.700 | 1.808 | 1.664 | 2.23 | 1.390 | ||
| LD 9 | 47.2 | 149.2 | 6.90 | 7.42 | 6.83 | 9.14 | 5.71 | ||
| BL 10 | 5.45 | 17.22 | 0.800 | 0.856 | 0.788 | 1.054 | 0.660 | ||
| TP 5 | 28.2 | 89.3 | 4.10 | 4.44 | 4.09 | 5.47 | 3.42 | ||
| Others | 18.36 | 58.0 | 2.70 | 2.89 | 2.66 | 3.55 | 2.22 | ||
| Sub Total | 282 | 892 | 41.0 | 44.4 | 40.8 | 54.6 | 34.1 | ||
| Medium | TL 1 | 126.2 | 399 | 18.10 | 19.85 | 18.27 | 24.3 | 15.27 | |
| HW 2 | 311 | 983 | 44.50 | 48.91 | 45.0 | 60.20 | 37.62 | ||
| LL 6 | 98.3 | 311 | 14.10 | 15.46 | 14.23 | 19.03 | 11.89 | ||
| FS 7 | 57.2 | 180.8 | 8.20 | 8.9 | 8.28 | 11.07 | 6.92 | ||
| CS 8 | 39.8 | 125.7 | 5.70 | 6.25 | 5.75 | 7.69 | 4.81 | ||
| LD 9 | 163.2 | 516 | 23.4 | 25.7 | 23.6 | 31.6 | 19.74 | ||
| BL 10 | 18.83 | 59.5 | 2.70 | 2.96 | 2.73 | 3.64 | 2.28 | ||
| TP 5 | 97.6 | 309 | 14.00 | 15.35 | 14.13 | 18.90 | 11.81 | ||
| Others | 63.5 | 201 | 9.10 | 9.98 | 9.19 | 12.28 | 7.68 | ||
| Sub Total | 976 | 3080 | 139.7 | 153.4 | 141.2 | 188.8 | 118.0 | ||
| Large | TL 1 | 83.9 | 265 | 12.00 | 13.18 | 12.15 | 16.24 | 10.15 | |
| HW 2 | 207 | 654 | 29.6 | 32.52 | 29.9 | 40.0 | 25.01 | ||
| LL 6 | 65.4 | 207 | 9.40 | 10.28 | 9.46 | 12.65 | 7.91 | ||
| FS 7 | 38.0 | 120.2 | 5.40 | 5.98 | 5.50 | 7.36 | 4.60 | ||
| CS 8 | 26.4 | 83.5 | 3.80 | 4.16 | 3.83 | 5.12 | 3.20 | ||
| LD 9 | 108.5 | 343 | 15.50 | 17.06 | 15.71 | 21.0 | 13.12 | ||
| BL 10 | 12.52 | 39.6 | 1.800 | 1.969 | 1.812 | 2.42 | 1.510 | ||
| TP 5 | 64.9 | 205 | 9.30 | 10.21 | 9.40 | 12.56 | 7.85 | ||
| Others | 42.2 | 133.4 | 6.00 | 6.64 | 6.11 | 8.17 | 5.10 | ||
| Sub Total | 649 | 2050 | 92.9 | 102.0 | 93.9 | 125.5 | 78.5 | ||
| Sub Total | 1906 | 6030 | 274 | 300 | 276 | 369 | 231 | ||
| Total | 2760 | 7730 | 319 | 470 | 433 | 625 | 281 | ||
1 TL: Tilling, 2 HW: Harrowing, 3 PP: Pumping, 4 SY: Spraying, 5 TP: Transporting, 6 LL: Leveling, 7 FS: Fertilizer spreading, 8 CS: Compost spreading, 9 LD: Loading, 10 BL: Baling.
Table 6.
Calculated air pollutant emissions of walking tractor by region in Korea (2011).
| Region | Emission (Mg/yr) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CO | NOx | SOx (×102) | TSP | PM2.5 | VOCs | NH3 (×10) | Total | |
| CHB 1 | 100 | 199 | 5 | 20 | 18 | 30 | 6 | 368 |
| CHN 2 | 192 | 384 | 10 | 38 | 35 | 58 | 11 | 708 |
| GAW 3 | 85 | 171 | 5 | 17 | 16 | 26 | 5 | 316 |
| GYB 4 | 306 | 613 | 16 | 61 | 56 | 92 | 18 | 1128 |
| GYG 5 | 129 | 258 | 7 | 26 | 24 | 39 | 8 | 477 |
| GYN 6 | 195 | 390 | 10 | 39 | 36 | 58 | 11 | 719 |
| JEB 7 | 133 | 265 | 7 | 27 | 24 | 40 | 8 | 490 |
| JEJ 8 | 32 | 65 | 2 | 6 | 6 | 10 | 2 | 119 |
| JEN 9 | 232 | 464 | 12 | 46 | 43 | 70 | 14 | 857 |
| TMC 10 | 64 | 128 | 3 | 13 | 12 | 19 | 4 | 236 |
| Total | 1468 | 2937 | 77 | 293 | 270 | 442 | 87 | 5419 |
1 CHB: Chungcheongbuk-do, 2 CHN: Chungcheongnam-do, 3 GAW: Gangwon-do, 4 GYB: Gyeongsangbuk-do, 5 GYG: Gyeonggi-do, 6 GYN: Gyeongsangnam-do, 7 JEB: Jeollabuk-do, 8 JEJ: Jeju-do, 9 JEN: Jeollanam-do, 10 TMC: Total of eight metropolitan cities.
Table 7.
Calculated air pollutant emissions of walking tractor by region in Korea (2019).
| Region | Emission (Mg/yr) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CO | NOx | SOx (×102) | TSP | PM2.5 | VOCs | NH3 (×10) | Total | |
| CHB 1 | 58 | 116 | 3 | 12 | 11 | 18 | 3 | 215 |
| CHN 2 | 100 | 109 | 5 | 20 | 18 | 30 | 6 | 278 |
| GAW 3 | 50 | 100 | 3 | 10 | 9 | 15 | 3 | 184 |
| GYB 4 | 195 | 389 | 10 | 39 | 36 | 57 | 11 | 717 |
| GYG 5 | 64 | 127 | 3 | 13 | 12 | 19 | 4 | 235 |
| GYN 6 | 113 | 225 | 6 | 23 | 21 | 34 | 7 | 417 |
| JEB 7 | 76 | 151 | 4 | 15 | 14 | 23 | 4 | 279 |
| JEJ 8 | 23 | 46 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 1 | 85.1 |
| JEN 9 | 135 | 270 | 7 | 27 | 25 | 41 | 8 | 499 |
| TMC 10 | 43 | 84 | 2 | 25 | 8 | 13 | 3 | 173 |
| Total | 857 | 1617 | 44 | 189 | 158 | 257 | 50 | 3083 |
1 CHB: Chungcheongbuk-do, 2 CHN: Chungcheongnam-do, 3 GAW: Gangwon-do, 4 GYB: Gyeongsangbuk-do, 5 GYG: Gyeonggi-do, 6 GYN: Gyeongsangnam-do, 7 JEB: Jeollabuk-do, 8 JEJ: Jeju-do, 9 JEN: Jeollanam-do, 10 TMC: Total of eight metropolitan cities.
Table 8.
Calculated air pollutant emissions of riding tractor by region in Korea (2011).
| Region | Emission (Mg/yr) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CO | NOx | SOx (×102) | TSP | PM2.5 | VOCs | NH3 (×10) | Total | |
| CHB 1 | 108 | 342 | 16 | 17 | 16 | 21 | 13 | 505 |
| CHN 2 | 253 | 801 | 36 | 40 | 38 | 49 | 31 | 1184 |
| GAW 3 | 127 | 402 | 18 | 20 | 18 | 25 | 15 | 594 |
| GYB 4 | 270 | 854 | 39 | 43 | 39 | 52 | 33 | 1262 |
| GYG 5 | 259 | 819 | 37 | 41 | 38 | 50 | 31 | 1210 |
| GYN 6 | 207 | 655 | 30 | 33 | 31 | 40 | 25 | 969 |
| JEB 7 | 210 | 664 | 30 | 33 | 30 | 41 | 25 | 981 |
| JEJ 8 | 30 | 94 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 139 |
| JEN 9 | 273 | 864 | 39 | 43 | 41 | 53 | 33 | 1278 |
| TMC 10 | 79 | 249 | 11 | 12 | 11 | 15 | 10 | 357 |
| Total | 1816 | 5744 | 260 | 287 | 266 | 352 | 220 | 8489 |
1 CHB: Chungcheongbuk-do, 2 CHN: Chungcheongnam-do, 3 GAW: Gangwon-do, 4 GYB: Gyeongsangbuk-do, 5 GYG: Gyeonggi-do, 6 GYN: Gyeongsangnam-do, 7 JEB: Jeollabuk-do, 8 JEJ: Jeju-do, 9 JEN: Jeollanam-do, 10 TMC: Total of eight metropolitan cities.
Table 9.
Calculated air pollutant emissions of riding tractor by region in Korea (2019).
| Region | Emission (Mg/yr) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CO | NOx | SOx (×102) | TSP | PM2.5 | VOCs | NH3 (×10) | Total | |
| CHB 1 | 113 | 358 | 16 | 18 | 16 | 22 | 14 | 529 |
| CHN 2 | 256 | 810 | 37 | 40 | 37 | 50 | 31 | 1196 |
| GAW 3 | 137 | 433 | 20 | 22 | 20 | 27 | 17 | 641 |
| GYB 4 | 312 | 986 | 45 | 49 | 45 | 60 | 38 | 1456 |
| GYG 5 | 230 | 727 | 33 | 36 | 33 | 45 | 28 | 1074 |
| GYN 6 | 219 | 694 | 32 | 35 | 32 | 42 | 27 | 1025 |
| JEB 7 | 228 | 720 | 33 | 36 | 33 | 44 | 28 | 1064 |
| JEJ 8 | 32 | 103 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 151.5 |
| JEN 9 | 291 | 919 | 42 | 46 | 42 | 56 | 35 | 1358 |
| TMC 10 | 88 | 278 | 13 | 14 | 13 | 17 | 11 | 411 |
| Total | 1906 | 6028 | 276 | 301 | 276 | 369 | 233 | 8906 |
1 CHB: Chungcheongbuk-do, 2 CHN: Chungcheongnam-do, 3 GAW: Gangwon-do, 4 GYB: Gyeongsangbuk-do, 5 GYG: Gyeonggi-do, 6 GYN: Gyeongsangnam-do, 7 JEB: Jeollabuk-do, 8 JEJ: Jeju-do, 9 JEN: Jeollanam-do, 10 TMC: Total of eight metropolitan cities.
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MDPI and ACS Style
Kim, M.H.; Kim, S.M. Estimation of Air Pollutant Emissions by Tractor Utilization in Korea. Agriculture 2023, 13, 1811. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091811
AMA Style
Kim MH, Kim SM. Estimation of Air Pollutant Emissions by Tractor Utilization in Korea. Agriculture. 2023; 13(9):1811. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091811
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Myoung Ho, and Seong Min Kim. 2023. "Estimation of Air Pollutant Emissions by Tractor Utilization in Korea" Agriculture 13, no. 9: 1811. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091811
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