Next Article in Journal
Experimental Evaluation of Rootstock Clamping Device for Inclined Inserted Grafting of Melons
Next Article in Special Issue
Morphometric and Nutritional Characterization of the Main Spanish Lentil Cultivars
Previous Article in Journal
Chemical Features and Bioactivities of Lactuca canadensis L., an Unconventional Food Plant from Brazilian Cerrado
Previous Article in Special Issue
Effect of Pod Sealant Application on the Quantitative and Qualitative Traits of Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Seed Yield
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Variation in Protein and Isoflavone Contents of Collected Domestic and Foreign Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) Germplasms in Korea

Department of Crop Science, College of Agriculture, Life Science and Environmental Chemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2021, 11(8), 735; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11080735
Submission received: 22 June 2021 / Revised: 23 July 2021 / Accepted: 27 July 2021 / Published: 2 August 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protein Crops: Physiological and Functional Perspectives)

Abstract

:
This study was carried out to investigate the variations in protein and isoflavone contents of 300 soybean germplasms introduced from domestic and foreign countries and to compare their contents in terms of size, colour and country of origin. The protein content ranged from 28.7 g 100 g1 to 44.5 g 100 g1, with an average of 39.0 g 100 g1. In a comparison of protein according to country of origin, the highest content was seen in soybeans from Korea (39.7 g 100 g1), followed by North Korea (39.2 g 100 g1), China (39.0 g 100 g1), Japan (38.8 g 100 g1), the USA (38.0 g 100 g1) and Russia (37.2 g 100 g1). The total isoflavone content ranged from 207.0 µg g−1 to 3561.8 µg g−1, with an average of 888.8 µg g−1. In the comparison of isoflavone content according to country, the highest average content was shown in soybeans from Japan (951.3 µg g−1), followed by the USA (918.7 µg g−1), Korea (902.2 µg g−1), North Korea (870.0 µg g−1) and Russia (710.6 µg g−1). Daidzein, glycitein and genistein isoflavone contents were positively correlated, while total isoflavone and protein showed a low negative correlation.

1. Introduction

Soybean germplasm pools in Asia are divided into seven groups defined by geographic region: northeastern China and Siberia, central and southern China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan and southern Asia, northern India and Nepal, and central India [1]. The soybean plant originated in northeastern China and the Korean peninsula around BC 1700–1100 and became widely distributed throughout East Asia, including Japan and the Maritime Province of Siberia. It is estimated that it then gradually spread to southeast Asian regions, such as Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia and Myanmar [2]. Soybean has become an important food for a diversity of cultures, and over long periods various kinds of domestic cultivars have been differentiated and cultivated to adapt the plant to different environments, including regions of Korea [3,4,5]. Korean domestic soybean cultivars reportedly have a high level of genetic variation [6,7,8,9,10], and promising domestic soybean cultivars have been used as parent lines and have contributed greatly to improving crop quality and yield [11]. It is clear that soybean genetic resources are important in breeding programmes [6,12].
Soybean seeds contain about 40 g 100 g1 protein [13,14], within a range of 25 g·100 g1 to 45 g 100 g1, and the main fractions consist of 11S (glycinin) and 7S (β-conglycinin) [15]. Soybean proteins have excellent nutritional and physicochemical functions compared with other plant proteins [16]. Therefore, the goal of soybean breeding programmes is to develop new varieties with increased protein content and quality and high amounts of functional components [14]. Soybean cultivars show greater variation in protein content than the variation caused by the environment [17,18,19] and usually accumulate more protein during the reproductive stages when grown at low temperatures [18,19,20,21]. Soybean genetic resources show protein content variation in the region of 34 g 100 g1 to 57 g 100 g1 compared to dry weight [21,22], and the high protein content of soybeans increases the yield when they are processed into pastes such as tofu and soybean paste [23,24].
Soybean seeds contain approximately 0.2% to 0.4% isoflavones [25], and the content varies greatly depending on the variety and the cultivation environment. Even within the same variety, there are substantial variations in the content of isoflavones depending on the year and region of cultivation [25,26]. The isoflavone content decreases in regions with high rainfall [27,28]; the average isoflavone content of seeds from four domestic varieties of soybean cultivated in paddy fields was 992 mg/kg, which is 237 mg/kg higher than those grown in dry fields [29]. The isoflavones produced by soybean include three substances and four chemical structures. The 12 isomers exist in forms such as aglycones (daidzein, glycitein, genistein), glucosides (daidzin, glycitin, genistin), malonylglucoside derivatives (6″-O-malonyldaidzin, 6″-O-malonylglycitin, 6″-O-malonylgenistin) and acetylglucoside derivatives (6″-O-acetyldaidzin, 6″-O-acetylglycitin, 6″-O-acetylgenistin) [28,30]. Soybean isoflavones are phytoestrogens structurally similar to 17-β-oestradiol that have the same effect on oestrogen receptors (ER-α and ER-β) as the female hormone oestrogen, reducing blood cholesterol and inhibiting skeletal loss to prevent cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis in menopausal women and promoting high physiological activity to relieve postmenopausal syndrome and prevent breast, prostate, ovarian and colon cancers [31]. In addition, cosmetics containing soybean isoflavones reduce the need for dihydrotestosterone, which can lead to acne vulgaris lesions [32]. Isoflavones are absorbed by the body to different degrees according to their form. Glucosides are barely absorbed by the intestine, whereas, when aglycones are hydrolysed by β-glucosidase, they are rapidly absorbed by passive diffusion [33,34]. Two absorbable isoflavones, genistein and daidzein, are known as representative isoflavones with excellent physiological functions [35,36,37,38]. The isoflavones in non-fermented soybean-based foods are mostly biologically inactive β-glucosides, whereas in fermented soybean foods, they are typically in the form of aglycones, e.g., genistein, daidzein and glycitein, which account for about 50%, 40% and 10%, respectively.
Since the 2000s, consumer demand has diversified, and there has been a rapid increase in interest in health and food functionality; therefore, the breeding goals of soybean producers are functionality, safety, high quality and diversity of use. Soybean seeds have excellent nutritional benefits such as high-quality protein, essential fatty acids and other physiologically active substances, including isoflavones, saponins, phytic acid, vegetable sterol, dietary fibre and protease inhibitors. Interest in isoflavones as important anticancer substances is also emerging. Many research findings on soybean protein and isoflavones have been reported. However, research to discover useful genetic resources for the development of high-quality, high-protein and high-isoflavone varieties is still insufficient. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the variation in protein and isoflavone contents of soybean germplasms and to select useful genetic resources for the development of new varieties.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Materials and Cultivation

We examined 300 soybean germplasms collected from six countries (Korea, 117 genetic germplasms; China, 71; Japan, 46; USA, 43; Russia, 12; and North Korea, 11) (Table 1). Seed size was classified into large (>24 g), medium (13–24 g) and small (<13 g) by 100-seed weight. Seed colour was divided into black, green, yellow and brown. Three hundred soybean germplasms were cultivated in an experimental field of Chungbuk National University after sowing on 27 May 2019. The density was 70 cm (row) × 15 cm (plant) with three seeds; two seedlings were thinned as the first leaf emerged. Fertilizer was supplied at 50 kg/km2 (N:P2O5:K2O = 3:3:3.4 kg/ha), and other cultivation management strategies were in accordance with standard soybean cultivation methods based on Rural Development Administration recommendations. The harvested soybean seeds were stored in a −20 °C freezer and used for protein and isoflavone analysis.

2.2. Seed Protein Extraction

The soybean seeds were harvested and dried for 3 days in a 40 °C dry oven and then analysed after confirming that the moisture content was 16% or less. The protein content of the seeds was analysed by the micro-Kjeldahl method [39]. Soybean seeds were pulverised using a grinder (UDY Co., Fort Collins, CO, USA), and 50 mg of the powder was hydrolysed with 20 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and catalyst (CuSO4 + K2SO4) in a digester (Hanil Lab Tech Co., Yangju, Korea) at 415 °C for 2 h. After cooling at room temperature for 2 h, the product was distilled using an automatic Kjeldahl distillation unit (Hanil Lab Tech Co., Yangju, Korea) and titrated with a standard solution of ammonia sulphuric acid (0.1 N) adsorbed on boric acid. The amount of total nitrogen in the raw material was multiplied by the traditional conversion factor of 6.25 to determine the total protein content [39].

2.3. Isoflavones Extraction and HPLC Analysis

For the isoflavone analysis, daidzein, glycitein and genistein standards were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA), dissolved in 100% dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) and diluted to five different concentrations according to the concentration gradient. In the chromatogram obtained by injecting 20 µL into a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) column, the calibration curve equation and coefficient of determination between the measured value of the peak area and the concentration of the standard solution were calculated (Table S1).
The isoflavones from soybean seeds (50 mg of powder) were first extracted using 15 mL of 1 N HCl and acid-hydrolysed in an oven at 105 °C for 2 h to convert the glycosides into the aglycone forms. The mixtures were cooled at room temperature for 1 h, 20 mL of 100% MeOH was added and the aglycones were extracted by stirring for 2 h. We added 100% MeOH to the extract and passed it through a 0.45 μm filter before HPLC analysis. The HPLC analysis was performed with a Waters 600 series pump and controller, and Waters 486 tunable absorbance detector (Waters Co., Milford, MA, USA). Twenty microliters of the sample was injected into a YMC-PACK Pro C18 column (250 × 4.6 mm i.d.) (YMC Co., Kyoto, Japan) using a 30 min. linear gradient of 20–50% acetonitrile (v/v) in aqueous solution containing constant 0.1% acetic acid. The UV absorption was measured at 254 nm (Table S2). The aglycones were separated in the order of daidzein, glycitein and genistein according to retention time (Figure S1).

2.4. Data Analysis

All experiments were conducted in triplicate, and the data are reported as mean ± standard deviation. All data were subjected to analysis of Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) via the SAS software package (release 9.4; SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA). Data were analysed using the PROC general linear model (GLM) procedure, and means were separated on the basis DMRT. Significances were set at the 5% level. Soybean germplasms classified based on the contents of protein and isoflavone were analysed according to collected country, seed size and seed colour using multivariate analysis.

3. Results

3.1. Protein Content of Soybean Seeds

The protein content of the seeds was 28.7 g 100 g1 to 44.57 g 100 g1 (average 39.07 g 100 g1) (Table S3). Of the 300 soybean germplasms, the majority (99.3 g 100 g1) ranged between 38 g 100 g1 and 40 g 100 g1 protein (Figure 1), and higher protein contents (≥ 43.5 g 100 g1) were seen in IT263050 (44.5 g 100 g1), IT101111 (44.0 g 100 g1), IT24921 (43.8 g 100 g1), IT167907 (43.8 g 100 g1), IT102595 (43.6 g 100 g1) and IT161574 (43.5 g 100 g1) (Table S4). IT263050, IT24921 and IT161574 were genetic resources collected in China, and IT101111, IT167907 and IT102595 were obtained from Korea.
Soybean seeds from Korea had the highest protein content at 39.7 g 100 g1, followed by North Korea (39.2 g 100 g1), China (39.0 g 100 g1), Japan (38.8 g 100 g1), the United States (38.0 g 100 g1) and Russia (37.2 g 100 g1) (Table 2). The difference in protein content among the countries was highly significant, with a p-value < 0.001. The germplasm with the highest protein content was IT263050 from China, containing 44.5 g 100 g1, and the germplasm with the lowest content was IT156248 (28.7 g 100 g1), which was collected in Japan.
In Korea, soybean seeds are generally classified into three sizes, small (<12 g), medium (12–24 g) and large (>24 g), based on their 100-seed weight. In terms of changes in protein content with seed size, the highest average of 39.7 g 100 g1 was observed in small seed germplasms, followed by large seed germplasms at 39.3 g 100 g1 and medium-sized germplasms at 38.6 g 100 g1 (Table 3). The difference in protein content according to seed size was recognized as significant with a p-value of 0.008, and there was also a significant difference according to the results of DART.
Differences in protein content according to seed colour were found in the order of yellow-seed germplasms (39.1%), green seed germplasms (39.0%), black seed germplasms (38.9%) and brown seed germplasms (38.6%), but the differences were not significant (Table 4).

3.2. Isoflavone Contents of Soybean Seeds

The isoflavone contents of the 300 soybean germplasms collected from six counties are shown in Table S5. The seeds had 207.0–3561.8 µg g−1 of isoflavone (average = 888.8 µg g−1 seed). In terms of each component, the average content of daidzein was 338.4 µg g−1 and ranged from 56.4 to 2081.4 µg g−1, and that of glycitein was 126.0 µg g−1 and ranged from 17.7 to 443.7 µg g−1. The average genistein content was 424.2 µg g−1 and ranged from 28.2 to 1378.4 µg g−1. Genistein was the most abundant isoflavone, followed by daidzein and glycitein. In most soybean germplasms, the content of daidzein and genistein was about 90% of the total isoflavone content. The content distributions of isoflavones in the 300 collected soybean germplasms are shown in Figure 2. Daidzein was found in 137 germplasms at the range of 200–400 µg g−1, 75 germplasms at <200 µg g−1 and 5 germplasms at >1000 µg g−1. Glycitein concentrations of <100 µg g−1 were observed in 112 germplasms, and >300 µg g−1 was seen in 11 germplasms. Most of the germplasms (121) had in the range of 200–400 µg g−1, 28 germplasms had <200 µg g−1 and 2 germplasms had >1000 µg g−1. The distribution of the total isoflavone content was 165 germplasms in the range of 500–1000 µg g−1 and 77 germplasms in the range of 1000–1500 µg g−1, and more than 80% of germplasms had between 500 µg g−1 and 1500 µg g−1. Six germplasms, IT262889 (3561.8 µg g−1), IT171009 (2271.0 µg g−1), IT100869 (2250.5 µg g−1), IT208248 (2179.3 µg g−1), IT142911 (2028.7 µg g−1) and IT142854 (2017.1 µg g−1), showed a total isoflavone content of >2000 µg g−1 (Table S6), of which IT262889 collected in Japan showed the highest total isoflavone content.
The average total isoflavone content by country of collection was 951.3 µg g−1 in Japan, 918.7 µg g−1 in the United States, 902.2 µg g−1 in Korea, 870.0 µg g−1 in North Korea, 841.3 µg g−1 in China and 710.6 µg g−1 in Russia, but there were no significant differences. The daidzein and genistein contents also did not differ significantly between countries, but the glycitein content showed a high level of significance, with a p-value of less than 0.001 (Table 5).
When we compared the contents of various seed sizes, the total isoflavone content was the highest in small seeds with an average of 1156.0 µg g−1, followed by large seeds with an average of 898.4 µg g−1 and medium-sized seeds with an average of 812.3 µg g−1. The isoflavone content was significantly different between seed sizes, with a p-value of <0.001, and there was also a significant difference in the DART results (Table 6).
Differences in total isoflavone content according to seed colour were significant with a p-value of <0.001 (Table 7). The average isoflavone content was 1074.2 µg g−1 in brown germplasms, 1070.1 µg g−1 in black seed germplasms, 1006.2 µg g−1 in green germplasms and 803.0 µg g−1 in yellow germplasms. The daiszein content was the highest in black germplasms (436.5 µg g−1) compared with green germplasms (406.4 µg g−1), brown germplasms (402.7 µg g−1) and yellow germplasms (294.9 µg g−1). The glycitein content was the highest in germplasms (158.4 µg g−1) compared with black germplasms (152.4 µg g−1), yellow germplasms (121.5 µg g−1) and green germplasms (110.1 µg g−1). The genistein content was the highest in brown germplasms (513.1 µg g−1) compared with green germplasms (489.7 µg g−1), black germplasms (481.3 µg g−1) and yellow germplasms (386.6 µg g−1).
The genetic distances between all pairings of groups by release period are shown in Table 7. The genetic distance between varieties developed after 2000 and in the 1980s was the furthest at 0.5731, and the genetic distance between varieties developed after 2000 and in the 1990s was the nearest at 0.1909 (Table 7).

3.3. Correlation between Protein and Isoflavone Contents of Soybean Seeds

The correlations between protein and dadzein, glycitein, genistein and total isoflavone contents are shown in Figure 3. The correlation coefficients for protein compared to daizein, glycitein or genistein contents were −0.1694, −0.1706 and −0.222, respectively, and between the protein and total isoflavone content, the coefficient was −0.2200. Therefore, there was a slight negative correlation between the protein content and that of isoflavones.

4. Discussion

Wilson [21] reported that the protein content of soybean seeds was distributed in the range of 34% to 57% of dry matter weight. In this study, the protein content of the collected soybean germplasms was in the range of 29% to 45%. The protein content was in the range of 38–40% in 99 soybean germplasms, 34% or less in four soybean germplasms, and 44% or more in two soybean germplasms (Figure 1). Kumar [40] reported that the protein content of soybeans is higher at lower latitudes; the accumulation of protein in soybean seeds depends on the interaction between the variety and the cultivation environment, and protein accumulates to higher levels when the plant is matured at a low temperature during the reproductive growth period [20,21]. Weiss et al. [41] reported that the shorter the fruiting period, the higher the protein content is, and the shorter the growing period, the lower the fat content is. Furthermore, other components of soybean seeds vary depending on the variety and cultivation environment. In our study, the soybean varieties originating from the six countries were grown in the same cultivation environment, and the significant difference in protein content of germplasms by country was due to variations in the soybean varieties rather than the cultivation environment.
Park et al. [42] reported that the average total isoflavone content of 106 soybean varieties in Korea was 1489.0 µg g−1, ranging from 527.9 µg g−1 to 3436.5 µg g−1, with the boseokong variety having the highest concentration. In other countries, the variation in isoflavone content among varieties was reported to be 1160–3090 µg g−1 [26,43,44]. However, the average total isoflavone content of the soybean germplasms collected in the six countries was 888.8 µg g−1, in the range of 207.0–3561.8 µg g−1. This result shows that soybean germplasms had 600.2 µg g−1 less than the average total isoflavone content of the Korean varieties. Therefore, the total isoflavone content was applied as an important factor in the soybean breeding programme. In addition, the average total content of isoflavones in 66 varieties of Korean soybean sprout was 1209 µg g−1, in the range of 247–2256 µg g−1 [45]. The average total isoflavone content of Korean bean sprout varieties and the small seed soybean germplasms were similar, at 1156.0 µg g−1 and 267.7–2271.1 µg g−1. According to the results, the total isoflavone content is not an important factor in the development of bean sprout varieties. The variation in isoflavone content with seed colour was the same as seen in a previous study [46]; i.e., yellow seeds (373–1610 µg g−1) contained higher concentrations than black seeds (498–1145 µg g−1) (Table 7).
The concentration of isoflavone in soybeans increases at low temperatures during the maturing stage [36,44], and complex environmental factors, such as average temperature and diurnal temperature difference, are involved in the changes in the isoflavone contents at high altitudes [47]. Paucar-Menacho et al. [48] conducted a comparative analysis between low-protein variety and high-protein varieties of soya. In the analysis, the protein and isoflavone contents showed a strong negative correlation. However, the correlation coefficient between protein and total isoflavone contents in the current study was −0.2200, and there was a weak negative correlation between the contents of protein and each isoflavone component (Figure 3). The correlation between the protein and isoflavone contents is highly negative when only low-protein and high-protein varieties are compared, but soybean germplasms are resources with high amounts of protein and isoflavones. This study has provided useful information on differences in soybean protein and isoflavone contents according to size, colour and country of origin. The findings provide a reference for those selecting genetic resources for the development of high-quality soybean varieties.

5. Conclusions

In a comparison of protein content according to country of origin and seed size, there were highly significant differences. In the comparison of isoflavone content according to seed sizes and colour, there were significant differences in the DART results. Daidzein, glycitein and genistein isoflavone contents were positively correlated, while for total isoflavone and protein content, the coefficient was −0.2200. Therefore, total isoflavone and protein showed a low negative correlation.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agriculture11080735/s1, Table S1: Calibration equations of isoflavone standards, Figure S1: HPLC chromatogram patterns (UV 254nm) of seed isoflavones, Table S2: Analytical conditions of HPLC for isoflavone, Table S3: Maximum, minimum and mean value of protein contents in soybean germplasms, Table S4: Selected accessions for its high protein contents, Table S5: Maximum, minimuim and mean value of isoflavone contents in soybean germplasms, Table S6: Selected accessions for its high isoflavone contents.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.-S.K.; Methodology, H.-S.K.; Formal analysis, T.-Y.H. and J.-S.L.; Investigation, T.-Y.H. and J.-S.L.; Resources, H.-S.K.; Data curation, T.-Y.H. and J.-S.L.; Writing—original draft preparation, J.-S.L.; Writing—review and editing, T.-Y.H.; Visualization, T.-Y.H.; Supervision, H.-S.K.; Project administration, T.-Y.H.; Funding acquisition, T.-Y.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the research grant of the Chungbuk National University in 2020.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Sammour, R.H. Morphological, cytological and biochemical characterization of soybean germplasm. Res. Rev. Biosci. 2014, 8, 277–284. [Google Scholar]
  2. Hymowitz, T. Soybeans: The Success Story. In Advances in New Crops; Timber Press: Portland, OR, USA, 1990; pp. 159–163. [Google Scholar]
  3. Yoon, M.S.; Cho, G.T.; Kim, C.Y.; Cho, Y.H.; Kim, T.S.; Cho, E.G. SSR profiling and its variation in soybean germplasm. Korean J. Crop Sci. 2007, 52, 81–88. [Google Scholar]
  4. Hong, E.H.; Kim, S.D.; Lee, Y.H.; Park, R.K. Results and perspectives of soybean varietal improvement. In Proceedings of the 88 RDA Symposium, Suwon, Korea, 1988; pp. 31–57. [Google Scholar]
  5. Kwon, S.H.; Im, K.H.; Kim, J.R. Studies on diversity of seed weight in the Korean soybean land races and wild soybean. Korean J. Breed. 1972, 4, 70–74. [Google Scholar]
  6. Hwang, T.Y.; Gwak, B.S.; Sung, J.; Kim, H.S. Genetic Diversity Patterns and Discrimination of 172 Korean Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) Varieties Based on SSR Analysis. Agriculture 2020, 10, 77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Yoon, M.S.; Baek, H.J.; Lee, J.R.; Kim, H.H.; Cho, Y.H.; Kim, C.Y.; Ahn, J.W. The major morphological characteristics and variations of soybean landraces. J. Korean Soc. Int. Agric. 2003, 15, 294–303. [Google Scholar]
  8. Perry, M.; Mcintosh, M. Geographical patterns of variation in the USDA soybean germplasm collection: I. Morphological traits. Crop Sci. 1991, 31, 1350–1355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Song, H.S.; Lee, Y.I.; Kwon, S.H. Studies on the agronomic traits of Korean native soybean (Glycine max). Korea Soybean Digest 1991, 8, 1–16. [Google Scholar]
  10. Kwon, S.H.; Kim, J.R.; Song, H.S.; Im, K.H. Characteristics of important agronomic traits of Korean local soybean collections. Korean J. Breed. Sci. 1974, 6, 67–70. [Google Scholar]
  11. Kim, H.Y.; Baek, I.Y.; Oh, Y.J.; Cho, S.K.; Han, W.Y.; Ko, J.M.; Jeon, M.G.; Park, K.Y.; Kim, K.H.; Kim, Y.J.; et al. A New Soybean Cultivar ‘Wonheug’ for Sprout with Small Seed, Black Seed Coat and Disease Tolerance. Korean J. Breed. Sci. 2013, 45, 273–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Smale, M.; Day-Rubenstein, K. The demand for crop genetic resources: International use of the US national plant germplasm system. World Dev. 2002, 30, 1639–1655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Choi, Y.M.; Hyun, D.Y.; Lee, S.Y.; Lee, M.C.; Oh, S.J.; Lee, J.; Ko, H.; Huh, O.; Yoon, M. Development of NIRS Equations and Mass Evaluation of Crude Protein, Oil and Composition of Fatty Acid by Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS) in Soybean landraces from Korea. Korean J. Breed. Sci. 2016, 48, 406–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  14. Kim, Y.H.; Kim, S.D.; Hong, E.H. Present status and perspectives of soybean breeding program for high seed quality in Korea. Korea Soybean Digest 1995, 12, 1–20. [Google Scholar]
  15. Derbyshire, E.; Wright, D.; Boulter, D. Legumin and vicilin, storage proteins of legume seeds. Phytochemistry 1976, 15, 3–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Ju, J.S. Nutrition of soybean. Korea Soybean Digest 1985, 2, 16–19. [Google Scholar]
  17. Im, M.H.; Choung, M.G. Intra-and Inter-Variation of Protein Content in Soybean Cultivar Seonnogkong. Korean J. Crop Sci. 2008, 53, 78–83. [Google Scholar]
  18. Schutz, W.; Bernard, R. Genotype × Environment Interactions in the Regional Testing of Soybean Strains. Crop Sci. 1967, 7, 125–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Shorter, R.; Byth, D.; Mungomery, V. Estimates of selection parameters associated with protein and oil content of soybean seeds (Glycine max (L.) Merr.). Aust. J. Agric. Res. 1977, 28, 211–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Wolf, R.; Cavins, J.; Kleiman, R.; Black, L. Effect of temperature on soybean seed constituents: Oil, protein, moisture, fatty acids, amino acids and sugars. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1982, 59, 230–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Wilson, R.F. Seed composition. In Soybeans: Improvement, Production, and Uses, 3rd ed.; American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, USA, 2004; pp. 621–677. [Google Scholar]
  22. Cober, E.D.; Voldeng, H. Developing high-protein, high-yield soybean populations and lines. Crop Sci. 2000, 40, 39–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Hajika, M.; Takahashi, M.; Sakai, S.; Matsunaga, R. Dominant inheritance of a trait lacking β-conglycinin detected in a wild soybean line. Breed. Sci. 1998, 48, 383–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  24. Takahashi, K.; Banba, H.; Kikuchi, A.; Ito, M.; Nakamura, S. An induced mutant line lacking the α-subunit of β-conglycinin in soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill). Breed. Sci. 1994, 44, 65–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  25. Wang, H.J.; Murphy, P.A. Isoflavone composition of American and Japanese soybeans in Iowa: Effects of variety, crop year, and location. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1994, 42, 1674–1677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Eldridge, A.C.; Kwolek, W.F. Soybean isoflavones: Effect of environment and variety on composition. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1983, 31, 394–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Soe, Y.J.; Kim, M.K.; Lee, S.; Hwang, I.K. Physicochemical characteristics of soybeans cultivated in different regions and the accompanying soybean curd properties. Korean J. Food Cook. Sci. 2010, 26, 441–449. [Google Scholar]
  28. Yi, E.S.; Yi, Y.S.; Yoon, S.T.; Lee, H.G. Variation in antioxidant components of black soybean as affected by variety and cultivation region. Koran J. Crop Sci. 2009, 54, 80–87. [Google Scholar]
  29. Chon, S.U.; Kim, D.K. Difference in growth, yield and isoflavone content among soybean cultivars under drained paddy field condition. Korean J. Crop Sci. 2006, 51, 48–52. [Google Scholar]
  30. Lee, S.W.; Lee, J.H. Effects of oven-drying, roasting, and explosive puffing process on isoflavone distributions in soybean. Food Chem. 2009, 112, 316–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Trock, B.J.; Hilakivi-Clarke, L.; Clarke, R. Meta-analysis of soy intake and breast cancer risk. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2006, 98, 459–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Riyanto, P.; Subchan, P. Effect of soy isoflavones on acne vulgaris. J. Pak. Assoc. Dermatol. 2015, 25, 30–34. [Google Scholar]
  33. Murphy, P.; Farmakalidis, E.; Johnson, L. Isoflavone content of soya-based laboratory animal diets. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1982, 20, 315–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Cederroth, C.R.; Zimmermann, C.; Nef, S. Soy, phytoestrogens and their impact on reproductive health. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2012, 355, 192–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Omoni, A.O.; Aluko, R.E. Soybean foods and their benefits: Potential mechanisms of action. Nutr. Rev. 2005, 63, 272–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Tsukamoto, C.; Shimada, S.; Igita, K.; Kudou, S.; Kokubun, M.; Okubo, K.; Kitamura, K. Factors affecting isoflavone content in soybean seeds: Changes in isoflavones, saponins, and composition of fatty acids at different temperatures during seed development. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1995, 43, 1184–1192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Braden, A.; Shutt, D. The metabolism of pasture estrogens in ruminants. In Proceedings of the 11th International Grassland Congress, Surfers Paradise, Australia, 13–23 April 1970; pp. 770–773. [Google Scholar]
  38. Choi, J.S.; Kwon, T.W.; Kim, J.S. Notes: Isoflavone Contents in Some Varieties of Soybean. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 1996, 5, 167–169. [Google Scholar]
  39. Kjeldahl, J. Neue Methode zur Bestimmung des Stickstoffs in organischen Körpern. Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 1883, 22, 366–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Kumar, V.; Rani, A.; Solanki, S.; Hussain, S. Influence of growing environment on the biochemical composition and physical characteristics of soybean seed. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2006, 19, 188–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Weiss, M.; Weber, C.; Williams, L.; Probst, A. Correlation of agronomic characters and temperature with seed compositional characters in soybeans, as influenced by variety and time of planting. Agron. J. 1952, 44, 289–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Park, K.H.; Piao, X.M.; Jang, E.K.; Yoo, Y.E.; Kim, S.L.; Jong, J.H.; Kim, H.S. Variation of isoflavone contents in Korean soybean cultivar released from 1913 to 2006. Korean J. Breed. Sci. 2012, 44, 149–159. [Google Scholar]
  43. Morris, P.; Savard, M.; Ward, E. Identification and accumulation of isoflavonoids and isoflavone glucosides in soybean leaves and hypocotyls in resistance responses to Phytophthora megasperma f.sp. Glycinea. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 1991, 39, 229–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Kitamura, K.; Igita, K.; Kikuchi, A.; Kudou, S.; Okubo, K. Low isoflavone content in some early maturing cultivars, so-called “summer-type soybeans” (Glycine max (L.) Merrill). Jpn. J. Breed. 1991, 41, 651–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Kim, Y.H.; Hwang, Y.H.; Lee, H.S. Analysis of isoflavones for 66 varieties of sprout beans and bean sprouts. Korean J. Food Sci. Technol. 2003, 35, 568–575. [Google Scholar]
  46. Lee, M.H.; Park, Y.H.; Oh, H.S.; Kwak, T.S. Isoflavone content in soybean and its processed products. Korean J. Food Sci. Technol. 2002, 34, 365–369. [Google Scholar]
  47. Ok, H.C.; Yoon, Y.H.; Jeong, J.C.; Hur, O.S.; Kim, C.G.; Cho, H.M. Yields and isoflavone contents of soybean cultivar in highland area. Korean J. Crop Sci. 2008, 53, 102–109. [Google Scholar]
  48. Paucar-Menacho, L.M.; Amaya-Farfá, J.; Berhow, M.A.; Mandarino, J.M.G.; Mejia, E.G.D.; Chang, Y.K. A high-protein soybean cultivar contains lower isoflavones and saponins but higher minerals and bioactive peptides than a low-protein cultivar. Food Chem. 2010, 120, 15–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Figure 1. Frequency distributions of protein contents in 300 soybean germplasms.
Figure 1. Frequency distributions of protein contents in 300 soybean germplasms.
Agriculture 11 00735 g001
Figure 2. Frequency distributions of daidzein (a), glycitein (b), genistein (c) and total isoflavone (d) contents in 300 soybean germplasms.
Figure 2. Frequency distributions of daidzein (a), glycitein (b), genistein (c) and total isoflavone (d) contents in 300 soybean germplasms.
Agriculture 11 00735 g002
Figure 3. Relationship among daidzein (a), glycitein (b), genistein (c) and total isoflavone (d) and protein contents in 300 soybean germplasms.
Figure 3. Relationship among daidzein (a), glycitein (b), genistein (c) and total isoflavone (d) and protein contents in 300 soybean germplasms.
Agriculture 11 00735 g003
Table 1. Number of 300-soybean germplasms classified by collected country, seed size and colour.
Table 1. Number of 300-soybean germplasms classified by collected country, seed size and colour.
Collected countryKOR n = 117
CHNn = 71
JPNn = 46
USAn = 43
RUSn = 12
NKn = 11
Totaln = 300
Seed sizeLarge n = 107
Mediumn = 153
Smalln = 40
Totaln = 300
Seed colourBlackn = 37
Brownn = 21
Greenn = 50
Yellown = 192
Totaln = 300
KOR: Korea, CHN: China, JPN: Japan, USA: United States of America, RUS: Russia, NK: North Korea. Large (100 seed weight: >24 g), Medium (100 seed weight: 13 to 24 g), Small (100 seed weight: <13 g).
Table 2. Maximum, minimum and mean value of protein contents according to the collected country in 300 soybean germplasms.
Table 2. Maximum, minimum and mean value of protein contents according to the collected country in 300 soybean germplasms.
CountryNo.Max.Min.Mean±SDCV (%)
Protein
(g 100 g1)
CHN n = 7144.533.639.0 b,2.25.7
JPNn = 4642.328.738.8 b2.56.6
KORn = 1174435.539.7 a2.35.7
NKn = 1142.634.939.2 b1.95.0
RUSn = 124134.537.2 d2.25.9
USAn = 4342.831.538.0 c2.46.4
p-value<0.001
KOR: Korea, CHN: China, JPN: Japan, USA: United States of America, RUS: Russia, NK: North Korea. Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test at 5% level.
Table 3. Maximum, minimum and mean value of protein contents according to seed sizes in 300 soybean germplasms.
Table 3. Maximum, minimum and mean value of protein contents according to seed sizes in 300 soybean germplasms.
SizeNo.Max.Min.Mean±SDCV (%)
Protein
(g 100 g1)
Large n = 10744.035.339.3 b,†2.05.2
Mediumn = 15344.528.738.6 c2.56.5
Smalln = 4043.834.339.7 a2.66.6
p-value0.008
Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test at 5% level. Large (100 seed weight: >24 g), Medium (100 seed weight: 13 to 24 g) and Small (100 seed weight: <13 g).
Table 4. Maximum, minimum and mean value of protein contents according to seed colour in 300 soybean germplasms.
Table 4. Maximum, minimum and mean value of protein contents according to seed colour in 300 soybean germplasms.
ColourNo.Max.Min.Mean±SDCV (%)
Protein
(g 100 g1)
Blackn = 3744.534.338.9 a,†2.35.8
Brownn = 2142.134.438.6 a2.56.4
Greenn = 5042.934.739.0 a2.25.5
Yellown = 19244.028.739.1 a2.56.4
p-value 0.860
Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test at 5% level.
Table 5. Maximum, minimum and mean value of isoflavone contents according to collected countries in 300 soybean germplasms.
Table 5. Maximum, minimum and mean value of isoflavone contents according to collected countries in 300 soybean germplasms.
CountryStatisticsIsoflavone Contents (µg g−1)
DaidzeinGlyciteinGenisteinTotal
KOR
(n = 117)
Max.958.7380.2882.11973.7
Min.56.517.7121.7267.7
Mean352.2 a,109.7 d440.3 a902.2 a
CHN
(n = 71)
Max.1016.0351.6949.12271.1
Min.84.045.295.1278.2
Mean302.5 a151.6 a387.2 a841.3 a
JPN
(n = 46)
Max.2081.5302.01378.53561.9
Min.75.034.528.3207.0
Mean378.9 a103.6 e468.8 a951.3 a
USA
(n = 43)
Max.1060.4443.8906.22179.4
Min.62.356.8141.0260.1
Mean354.6 a152.5 a411.6 a918.7 a
RUS
(n = 12)
Max.331.0174.6479.2911.8
Min.150.372.9191.1491.0
Mean251.8 a131.7 b327.1 a710.6 a
NK
(n = 11)
Max.498.0245.0923.11415.7
Min.124.640.4214.9412.9
Mean288.2 a119.4 c462.5 a870.0 a
p-value 0.1893<0.0010.10300.4619
KOR: Korea, CHN: China, JPN: Japan, USA: United States of America, RUS: Russia, NK: North Korea. Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test at 5% level.
Table 6. Maximum, minimum and mean value of isoflavone contents according to seed sizes in 300 soybean germplasms.
Table 6. Maximum, minimum and mean value of isoflavone contents according to seed sizes in 300 soybean germplasms.
Seed Size (100-Seed Weight)StatisticsIsoflavone Contents (µg g−1)
DaidzeinGlyciteinGenisteinTotal
Small
n = 40
Max.1060.4443.8949.12271.1
Min.56.557.5153.4267.7
Mean477.6 a,†197.9 a480.5 a1156.0 a
±SD259.3104.5204.4522.2
CV (%)54.352.842.545.2
Medium
n = 153
Max.2081.5265.71378.53561.9
Min.62.334.665.0207.0
Mean295.1 c122.1 b395.0 c812.3 c
±SD200.953.5199.0390.0
CV (%)68.143.950.448.0
Large
n = 107
Max.1018.8271.51144.72250.5
Min.97.917.728.3240.5
Mean348.5 b104.8 c445.1 b898.4 b
±SD166.546.0186.6348.3
CV (%)47.843.941.938.8
p-value<0.001<0.0010.0198<0.001
Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test at 5% level. Large (100 seed weight: >24 g), Medium (100 seed weight: 13 to 24 g), Small (100 seed weight: <13 g).
Table 7. Maximum, minimum and mean value of isoflavone contents according to seed colour in 300 soybean germplasms.
Table 7. Maximum, minimum and mean value of isoflavone contents according to seed colour in 300 soybean germplasms.
Seed ColourStatisticsIsoflavone Contents (µg g−1)
DaidzeinGlyciteinGenisteinTotal
Black
n = 37
Max.1060.4380.2859.52028.8
Min.56.536.2106.4240.5
Mean436.5 a,†152.4 b481.3 c1070.1 a
±SD244.995.0174.7459.5
CV (%)56.162.336.342.9
Brown
n = 21
Max.1016.0443.8949.12271.1
Min.62.317.7141.0260.1
Mean402.7 b158.4 a513.1 a1074.2 a
±SD218.5218.5214.9506.8
CV (%)54.354.341.947.2
Green
n = 50
Max.688.0213.7918.61752.1
Min.108.340.099.6251.1
Mean406.4 b110.1 d489.7 b1006.2 b
±SD126.540.5144.7256.6
CV (%)31.136.829.625.5
Yellow
n = 192
Max.2081.5678.21378.53561.9
Min.75.034.528.3207.0
Mean294.9 c121.5 c386.6 d803.0 c
±SD202.454.8202.2398.3
CV (%)68.645.152.349.6
p-value<0.0010.0022<0.001<0.001
Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test at the 5% level.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Lee, J.-S.; Kim, H.-S.; Hwang, T.-Y. Variation in Protein and Isoflavone Contents of Collected Domestic and Foreign Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) Germplasms in Korea. Agriculture 2021, 11, 735. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11080735

AMA Style

Lee J-S, Kim H-S, Hwang T-Y. Variation in Protein and Isoflavone Contents of Collected Domestic and Foreign Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) Germplasms in Korea. Agriculture. 2021; 11(8):735. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11080735

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lee, Ji-Seok, Hong-Sig Kim, and Tae-Young Hwang. 2021. "Variation in Protein and Isoflavone Contents of Collected Domestic and Foreign Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) Germplasms in Korea" Agriculture 11, no. 8: 735. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11080735

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop