Simulating the Long-Term Effects of Fertilizer and Water Management on Grain Yield and Methane Emissions of Paddy Rice in Thailand
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Model Description
2.2. Validation of the Model Performance
2.2.1. Experimental Design
2.2.2. Model Input
2.2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.3. Long-Term Simulations of Multi-Site Location
2.3.1. Rice Varieties and Site Locations
- (1)
- KDML 105 (eight provinces): Ubon Ratchathani, Nakhon Ratchasima, Srisaket, Roi-et, Buriram, Surin, Yasothon and Amnat Charoen
- (2)
- RD6 (five provinces): Khon Kaen, Sakon Nakhon, Udon Thani, Kalasin and Ma-ha Sarakham
- (3)
- PTT 1 (four provinces): Uttaradit, Chai Nat, Suphan Buri and Ang Thong
- (4)
- SPR 1 (four provinces): Nakhon Sawan, Ratchaburi, Saraburi and Kanchanaburi
- (5)
- CNT 1 (three provinces): Phetchabun, Nakhon Sawan and Chai Nat
2.3.2. Data Collection and Long-Term Simulation
3. Results
3.1. Model Validation
3.2. Long-Term Simulation of Grain Yields
3.3. Long-Term Simulation of CH4 Emissions
4. Discussion
4.1. Model Performance
4.2. Effects of Fertilizer and Water Management Practices on Grain Yields
4.3. Effects of Fertilizer and Water Management Practices on CH4 Emissions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
DNDC | Denitrification–Decomposition model |
GHG | greenhouse gas |
CH4 | methane |
SOC | soil organic carbon |
F | chemical fertilizer |
M | cow manure |
F + M | mixed chemical fertilizer and cow manure |
CF | continuous flooding |
MD | mid-season drainage |
AWD | alternate wet and dry |
RF | rotation of fallow land and rain-fed rice |
RR | rotation of irrigated rice and rain-fed rice |
KDML 105 | rice variety name of Khao Dawk Mali 105 |
RD6 | rice variety name of Kao Khao 6 |
PTT 1 | rice variety name of Patum Thani 1 |
SPR 1 | rice variety name of Suphan Buri 1 |
CNT 1 | rice variety name of Chainat 1 |
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Management Practices | Season | RF | RR | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2010 | 2011 | 2010 | 2011 | ||
Tillage | dry | 2 Jan: Plowing, 20 cm | 22 Jan: Plowing, 20 cm | 2 Jan: Plowing, 20 cm | 22 Jan: Plowing, 20 cm |
7 Feb: Ploughing, 5 cm | 29 Jan: Ploughing, 5 cm | 7 Feb: Ploughing, 5 cm | 29 Jan: Ploughing, 5 cm | ||
wet | 9 Jul: Plowing, 20 cm | 23 Jul: Plowing, 20 cm | 9 Jul: Plowing, 20 cm | 23 Jul: Plowing, 20 cm | |
14 Aug: Ploughing, 5 cm | 28 Aug: Ploughing, 5 cm | 14 Aug: Ploughing, 5 cm | 28 Aug: Ploughing, 5 cm | ||
Cow manure incorporation | dry | 2 Jan: 4.3 ton ha−1 | No application | 2 Jan: 4.3 ton ha−1 | No application |
wet | 9 Jul: 10 ton ha−1 | No application | 9 Jul: 10 ton ha−1 | No application | |
Rice residue incorporation | dry | No crop residue | 22 Jan: 10.1 ton ha−1 | No crop residue | 22 Jan: 9.9 ton ha−1 |
wet | No crop residue | No crop residue | 9 Jul: 10.4 ton ha−1 | 23 Jul: 9.4 ton ha−1 | |
Rice planting and harvest | dry | Fallow | Fallow | 7 Feb: sowing | 29 Jan: sowing |
26 Jun: harvest | 24 Jun: harvest | ||||
wet | 14 Aug: sowing | 28 Aug: sowing | 14 Aug: sowing | 28 Aug: sowing | |
18 Dec: harvest | 28 Dec: harvest | 18 Dec: harvest | 28 Dec: harvest | ||
Fertilization | dry | Fallow | Fallow | 12 Mar: NPK (156 kg ha−1) | 25 Feb: NPK (156 kg ha−1) |
7 Apr: Urea (125 kg ha−1) | 9 Apr: NPK (78 kg ha−1) + Urea (12.5 kg ha−1) | ||||
23 May: Urea (125 kg ha−1) | |||||
wet | 7 Sep: NPK (156 kg ha−1) | 9 Oct: NPK (156 kg ha−1) | 7 Sep: NPK (156 kg ha−1) | 9 Oct: NPK (156 kg ha−1) | |
11 Nov: Urea (125 kg ha−1) | 20 Nov: Urea (125 kg ha−1) | 11 Nov: Urea (125 kg ha−1) | 20 Nov: Urea (125 kg ha−1) | ||
Water management | dry | Fallow | Fallow | Flooding: 5–8 Feb,11 Mar–24 Mar, 7 Apr–7 May, | Flooding: 27–30 Jan |
14 May–10 Jun | 20 Feb–9 Jun | ||||
continuous flooding, 10 cm | continuous flooding,10 cm | ||||
wet | Flooding: 13–16 Aug | Flooding: 19–29 Aug | Flooding: 13–16 Aug | Flooding: 19–29 Aug | |
1 Sep–10 Dec | 12 Sep–16 Dec | 1 Sep–10 Dec | 12 Sep–16 Dec | ||
continuous flooding,10 cm | continuous flooding,10 cm | continuous flooding,10 cm | continuous flooding,10 cm |
Rice Varieties | Provinces | Soil Texture | Sand (%) | Silt (%) | Clay (%) | BD (g cm−3) | pH (1:1 Water) | OM (%) | SOC (g C kg−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rain-Fed Rice Cropping | |||||||||
KDML 105 | Ubon Ratchathani | SL | 85.6 | 5.8 | 8.6 | 1.63 | 4.93 | 0.5 | 2.9 |
Nakhon Ratchasima | SL | 67.9 | 11.6 | 20.5 | 1.63 | 5.8 | 0.72 | 4.18 | |
Srisaket | SL | 64.6 | 18.4 | 17 | 1.63 | 6.7 | 1.08 | 6.26 | |
Roi-et | SL | 67.9 | 11.6 | 20.5 | 1.63 | 5.8 | 0.72 | 4.18 | |
Buriram | SL | 64.6 | 18.4 | 17 | 1.63 | 6.1 | 0.52 | 3.02 | |
Surin | SL | 64.6 | 18.4 | 17 | 1.63 | 4.8 | 0.75 | 4.35 | |
Yasothon | SL | 61.2 | 33 | 5.8 | 1.63 | 4.9 | 0.76 | 4.41 | |
Amnat Charoen | SL | 64.6 | 18.4 | 17 | 1.63 | 6.1 | 0.52 | 3.02 | |
RD6 | Khon Kaen | SL | 64 | 32 | 4 | 1.63 | 7.05 | 1.52 | 8.82 |
Sakon Nakhon | L | 47.5 | 41.5 | 11 | 1.63 | 4.05 | 0.5 | 2.9 | |
Udon Thani | SL | 54.1 | 39.8 | 6.1 | 1.63 | 5.35 | 1.66 | 9.63 | |
Kalasin | SL | 67.9 | 11.6 | 20.5 | 1.63 | 6.23 | 0.77 | 4.47 | |
Maha Sarakham | SL | 67.9 | 11.6 | 20.5 | 1.63 | 5.8 | 0.72 | 4.18 | |
Irrigated Rice Cropping | |||||||||
PTT 1 | Uttaradit | SiCL | 4.6 | 60.3 | 35.1 | 1.63 | 5.63 | 2.16 | 12.53 |
Chai Nat | SCL | 62.4 | 15.6 | 22 | 1.63 | 5.26 | 1.39 | 8.06 | |
Suphan Buri | SL | 70.8 | 23.9 | 5.3 | 1.63 | 6.29 | 1.38 | 8 | |
Ang Thong | C | 1.1 | 19.3 | 79.6 | 1.39 | 5.44 | 1.99 | 11.54 | |
SPR 1 | Nakhon Sawan | SiCL | 17.5 | 46.9 | 35.6 | 1.55 | 6.58 | 1.68 | 9.74 |
Ratchaburi | SL | 44 | 41 | 15 | 1.63 | 6.25 | 0.73 | 4.23 | |
Saraburi | C | 3.7 | 12.3 | 84 | 1.39 | 6.38 | 4.08 | 23.66 | |
Kanchanaburi | SL | 52.7 | 35.4 | 11.9 | 1.63 | 6.4 | 0.74 | 4.29 | |
CNT 1 | Phetchabun | SiCL | 6.3 | 54.6 | 39.1 | 1.55 | 5.98 | 2.21 | 12.82 |
Nakhon Sawan | SiCL | 17.5 | 46.9 | 35.6 | 1.55 | 7.15 | 1 | 5.8 | |
Chai Nat | SCL | 62.4 | 15.6 | 22 | 1.6 | 5.26 | 1.39 | 8.06 |
Rice Varieties | Scenario Names | Fertilizer and Water Management Practices | Remark | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fertilizer | Manure | Irrigation Method | ||||
(kg N ha−1 crop−1) | (kg C ha−1 crop−1) | (kg N ha−1 crop−1) | ||||
Rain-Fed Rice Cropping | ||||||
KDML 105 | KDML 105_F + AWD | 38.75 | - | - | AWD | Baseline |
KDML 105_F + CF | 38.75 | - | - | CF | ||
KDML 105_F + MD | 38.75 | - | - | MD | ||
KDML 105_M + AWD | - | 3875 | 276.78 | AWD | ||
KDML 105_M + CF | - | 3875 | 276.78 | CF | ||
KDML 105_M + MD | - | 3875 | 276.78 | MD | ||
KDML 105_F + M + AWD | 38.75 | 3875 | 276.78 | AWD | ||
KDML 105_F + M + CF | 38.75 | 3875 | 276.78 | CF | ||
KDML 105_F + M + MD | 38.75 | 3875 | 276.78 | MD | ||
RD6 | RD6_F + AWD | 38.75 | - | - | AWD | Baseline |
RD6_F + CF | 38.75 | - | - | CF | ||
RD6_F + MD | 38.75 | - | - | MD | ||
RD6_M + AWD | - | 3875 | 276.78 | AWD | ||
RD6_M + CF | - | 3875 | 276.78 | CF | ||
RD6_M + MD | - | 3875 | 276.78 | MD | ||
RD6_F + M + AWD | 38.75 | 3875 | 276.78 | AWD | ||
RD6_F + M + CF | 38.75 | 3875 | 276.78 | CF | ||
RD6_F + M + MD | 38.75 | 3875 | 276.78 | MD | ||
Irrigated Rice Cropping | ||||||
PTT 1 | PTT 1_F + CF | 121.25 | - | - | CF | Baseline |
PTT 1_F + MD | 121.25 | - | - | MD | ||
PTT 1_F + AWD | 121.25 | - | - | AWD | ||
PTT 1_M + CF | - | 580 | 41.43 | CF | ||
PTT 1_M + MD | - | 580 | 41.43 | MD | ||
PTT 1_M + AWD | - | 580 | 41.43 | AWD | ||
PTT 1_F + M + CF | 121.25 | 580 | 41.43 | CF | ||
PTT 1_F + M + MD | 121.25 | 580 | 41.43 | MD | ||
PTT 1_F + M + AWD | 121.25 | 580 | 41.43 | AWD | ||
SPR 1 | SPR 1_F + CF | 121.25 | - | - | CF | Baseline |
SPR 1_F + MD | 121.25 | - | - | MD | ||
SPR 1_F + AWD | 121.25 | - | - | AWD | ||
SPR 1_M + CF | - | 580 | 41.43 | CF | ||
SPR 1_M + MD | - | 580 | 41.43 | MD | ||
SPR 1_M + AWD | - | 580 | 41.43 | AWD | ||
SPR 1_F + M + CF | 121.25 | 580 | 41.43 | CF | ||
SPR 1_F + M + MD | 121.25 | 580 | 41.43 | MD | ||
SPR 1_F + M + AWD | 121.25 | 580 | 41.43 | AWD | ||
CNT 1 | CNT 1_F + CF | 121.25 | - | - | CF | Baseline |
CNT 1_F + MD | 121.25 | - | - | MD | ||
CNT 1_F + AWD | 121.25 | - | - | AWD | ||
CNT 1_M + CF | - | 580 | 41.43 | CF | ||
CNT 1_M + MD | - | 580 | 41.43 | MD | ||
CNT 1_M + AWD | - | 580 | 41.43 | AWD | ||
CNT 1_F + M + CF | 121.25 | 580 | 41.43 | CF | ||
CNT 1_F + M + MD | 121.25 | 580 | 41.43 | MD | ||
CNT 1_F + M + AWD | 121.25 | 580 | 41.43 | AWD |
Start | End | End/Start (%) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fertilizer Management Practices on Grain Yields | |||||||||
F | M | F + M | F | M | F + M | F | M | F + M | |
KDML 105 | 1000 ± 17 c | 1100 ± 8 b | 1140 ± 4 a | 1030 ± 27 a | 949 ± 2 b | 960 ± 1 b | 103 ± 2 | 87 ± 1 | 85 ± 0 |
RD6 | 993 ± 22 b | 894 ± 19 c | 1200 ± 8 a | 1020 ± 18 b | 844 ± 7 c | 1170 ± 12 a | 102 ± 1 | 95 ± 3 | 98 ± 1 |
PTT 1 | 2000 ± 217 a | 699 ± 53 b | 2130 ± 190 a | 1820 ± 156 a | 722 ± 41 b | 1868 ± 176 a | 91 ± 5 | 103 ± 2 | 88 ± 2 |
SPR 1 | 1840 ± 85 a | 684 ± 54 b | 1930 ± 117 a | 1710 ± 53 a | 690 ± 58 b | 1760 ± 78 a | 93 ± 2 | 101 ± 1 | 91 ± 4 |
CNT 1 | 1770 ± 171 a | 635 ± 46 b | 1850 ± 174 a | 1590 ± 165 a | 700 ± 36 b | 1610 ± 175 a | 90 ± 5 | 110 ± 2 | 87 ± 2 |
Water Management Practices on Grain Yields | |||||||||
CF | MD | AWD | CF | MD | AWD | CF | MD | AWD | |
KDML 105 | 1080 ± 77 a | 1070 ± 83 a | 1090 ± 70 a | 985 ± 62 a | 971 ± 32 a | 983 ± 57 a | 91 ± 12 | 91 ± 10 | 91 ± 11 |
RD6 | 1030 ± 173 a | 1010 ± 180 a | 1040 ± 168 a | 1010 ± 182 a | 1010 ± 178 a | 1010 ± 195 a | 98 ± 5 | 99 ± 4 | 97 ± 5 |
PTT 1 | 1575 ± 890 a | 1730 ± 1030 a | 1520 ± 762 a | 1400 ± 692 a | 1580 ± 854 a | 1430 ± 650 a | 93 ± 12 | 94 ± 10 | 95 ± 7 |
SPR 1 | 1440 ± 777 a | 1550 ± 867 a | 1470 ± 718 a | 1330 ± 665 a | 1410 ± 734 a | 1410 ± 649 a | 95 ± 7 | 93 ± 7 | 97 ± 5 |
CNT 1 | 1380 ± 766 a | 1520 ± 885 a | 1350 ± 659 a | 1230 ± 550 a | 1410 ± 705 a | 1250 ± 503 a | 94 ± 17 | 97 ± 14 | 96 ± 13 |
Start | End | End/Start (%) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fertilizer Management Practices on CH4 Emissions | |||||||||
F | M | F + M | F | M | F + M | F | M | F + M | |
KDML 105 | 394 ± 209 a | 526 ± 134 a | 530 ± 140 a | 405 ± 211 a | 623 ± 134 a. | 633 ± 140 a | 103 ± 2 | 119 ± 6 | 120 ± 6 |
RD6 | 366 ± 199.6 a | 407 ± 212 a | 476 ± 252 a | 354 ± 189 a | 442 ± 228 a | 533 ± 278 a | 97 ± 3 | 109 ± 5 | 112 ± 5 |
PTT 1 | 1850 ± 767 a | 1090 ± 548 a | 1870 ± 763 a | 2370 ± 841 a | 1390 ± 616 a | 2400 ± 824 a | 130 ± 12 | 130 ± 12 | 131 ± 12 |
SPR 1 | 1920 ± 781 a | 1070 ± 537 a | 1950 ± 765 a | 2690 ± 1007 a | 1380 ± 658 a | 2750 ± 978 a | 142 ± 5 | 131 ± 7 | 142 ± 7 |
CNT 1 | 1390 ± 459 a | 892 ± 374 a | 1420 ± 472 a | 1760 ± 464 a | 1150 ± 408 a | 1790 ± 480 a | 128 ± 13 | 131 ± 14 | 127 ± 13 |
Water Management Practices on CH4 Emissions | |||||||||
CF | MD | AWD | CF | MD | AWD | CF | MD | AWD | |
KDML 105 | 636 ± 54 a | 458 ± 67 b | 357 ± 142 b | 699 ± 109 a | 547 ± 135 ab | 414 ± 194 b | 110 ± 8 | 119 ± 13 | 114 ± 12 |
RD6 | 625 ± 93 a | 386 ± 57 b | 237 ± 39 c | 655 ± 146 a | 428 ± 100 b | 246 ± 57 b | 104 ± 9 | 110 ± 10 | 103 ± 8 |
PTT 1 | 2250 ± 658 a | 1530 ± 430 ab | 1030 ± 416 b | 2790 ± 814 a | 1910 ± 544 ab | 1480 ± 593 b | 124 ± 0 | 124 ± 1 | 143 ± 1 |
SPR 1 | 2280 ± 722 a | 1610 ± 527 ab | 1050 ± 452 b | 3090 ± 1090 a | 2200 ± 830 a | 1540 ± 707 a | 135 ± 6 | 136 ± 9 | 145 ± 7 |
CNT 1 | 1620 ± 417 a | 1230 ± 290 ab | 856 ± 308 b | 1990 ± 476 a | 1490 ± 337 ab | 1210 ± 417 b | 123 ± 3 | 121 ± 1 | 142 ± 3 |
Output Study | This Study | Other Study | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Simulation Year | Result | Simulation Year | Result | ||
SOC | 2 | R2 = 0.36 | 31 | R2 = 0.95 to 0.99 | Naher et al. [22] |
Slope = 0.47 | nRMSE = 4.1 to 7.9 | ||||
NRMES = 1.58 | |||||
Grain yield | 2 | R2 = 0.83 | 20 | R2 = 0.99 | Minamikawa et al. [36] |
slope = 0.98 | NRMSE = 0.11 | ||||
NRMES = 0.30 | 22 | R2 = 0.96 to 0.98 | Pandey et al. [40] | ||
slope = 1.08 to 1.21 | |||||
RMSD = 150 to 174 | |||||
1 | R = 0.93 to 0.99 | Wang et al. [41,42] | |||
MAE = 2.2 to 6.6% | |||||
25 | R2 = 0.62 to 0.69 | Tian et al. [43] | |||
Slope = 0.52 to 0.64 | |||||
CH4 emission | 2 | R2 = 0.83 | 1 | RMSE = 1.76 to 1.86 | Katayanagi et al. [44] |
slope = 0.74 | 20 | R2 = 0.96 | Minamikawa et al. [36] | ||
NRMES = 0.43 | NRMSE = 0.29 | ||||
1 | R2 = 0.76 | Zhao et al. [45] | |||
ME = 0.71 | |||||
2 | RMSE = 0.30 to 1.85 | Oo et al. [46] | |||
22 | R2 = 0.93 to 0.97 | Pandey et al. [40] | |||
slope = 0.77 to 0.87 | |||||
RMSD = 35.40 to 41.60 | |||||
1 | R = 0.90 | Wang et al. [41,42] | |||
MAE = 15.7% | |||||
N2O emission | 2 | R2 = 0.83 | 1 | RMSE = 2.23 to 124 | Katayanagi et al. [44] |
slope = 0.76 | 2 | RMSE = 7.4 to 97.0 | Oo et al. [46] | ||
NRMES = 0.74 | 1 | R2 = 0.71 | Zhao et al. [45] | ||
ME = 0.67 |
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Cha-un, N.; Chidthaisong, A.; Yagi, K.; Towprayoon, S. Simulating the Long-Term Effects of Fertilizer and Water Management on Grain Yield and Methane Emissions of Paddy Rice in Thailand. Agriculture 2021, 11, 1144. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11111144
Cha-un N, Chidthaisong A, Yagi K, Towprayoon S. Simulating the Long-Term Effects of Fertilizer and Water Management on Grain Yield and Methane Emissions of Paddy Rice in Thailand. Agriculture. 2021; 11(11):1144. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11111144
Chicago/Turabian StyleCha-un, Nittaya, Amnat Chidthaisong, Kazuyuki Yagi, and Sirintornthep Towprayoon. 2021. "Simulating the Long-Term Effects of Fertilizer and Water Management on Grain Yield and Methane Emissions of Paddy Rice in Thailand" Agriculture 11, no. 11: 1144. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11111144