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Review

Unmanned Aircraft Systems: A Latin American Review and Analysis from the Colombian Context

by
Gabriel J. Sánchez-Zuluaga
1,*,
Luisa Isaza-Giraldo
1,
Germán Darío Zapata-Madrigal
1,
Rodolfo García-Sierra
2 and
John E. Candelo-Becerra
1
1
Grupo de Investigación Teleinformática y Tele Automática, Facultad de Minas, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Medellín, Carrera 80 No. 65-223, Campus Robledo, Medellín 050041, Colombia
2
HUB de Innovación del Grupo Enel Colombia, Bogotá 111711, Colombia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(3), 1801; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031801
Submission received: 2 November 2022 / Revised: 23 January 2023 / Accepted: 24 January 2023 / Published: 31 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) System)
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The usage of unmanned aircraft systems to complete routine, commercial, and industrial tasks has increased throughout the world, evidencing better profitability and reducing risks for operators. However, in some countries, there is a low implementation of unmanned aircraft systems, particularly in the electrical sector, due to a lack of appropriation or adaptation of technology to the local environment. Therefore, this paper presents an analysis of the uses of unmanned aircraft systems in the electrical industry worldwide and its possible application to a local context to identify how the expansion of unmanned aerial vehicles is helping various industries. The contribution of this paper is to show how the employment of unmanned aerial vehicles can help in any particular task in the electrical sector and the appropriation of these technologies in a country, showing a possible categorization of unmanned aerial vehicles based on future applications and current regulations. The analysis was carried out in the Colombian context, considering the current regulation and the impact of its use. This research considers safety, security, and privacy implications, including the reduction of personal harm with low operation costs. In addition, the importance of future implementations in Colombia is discussed as a topic of interest for any electrical company, researchers, and government entities.

1. Introduction

Nowadays, unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) have become easy acquisition vehicles for people. They are commonly used for inspection, photography, video, and entertainment [1,2]. However, they have also become a topic of great interest in terms of security, safety, and privacy [3]. UASs are characterized by their versatility, good maneuverability, stability, and capacity to carry different types of payload. All of these attributes make this aircraft a viable alternative to fly through difficult terrain and reach critical assets in the electrical grid. For example, this is useful for monitoring electrical towers and substations. In Colombia, despite many current projects with UASs, there is a lack of information on applications in the productive sectors, particularly in the electrical sector. Furthermore, the regulations also restrict its use in many areas, affecting the proper classification of aircraft.
The lack of research and practical applications in the productive areas of the UAS in Latin America and Colombia causes technological lags due to its absence, generating a slowdown in economies. This industry has recently grown rapidly, increasing its global market by USD 27.2 billion in 2020 and is projected to reach USD 58.6 billion by 2026 [4]⁠. From a more general perspective, Latin America is considered a growing market for the use of these vehicles due to its complex topology, vegetation, biodiversity, and diverse climatology [5]⁠. Hence, different theoretical and analytical research and some new applications are already underway. Therefore, complex operations, such as swarm intelligence, are becoming more important for performing sophisticated tasks and automatic target recognition to identify and classify objectives [6,7]⁠. For agility and safety reasons, it may be more useful for a UAV to perform some tasks than a person who collects medical information in large urban tropical cities and rural communities, where there are more health problems that affect the population [8]. The monitoring and management of natural resources are more productive with this technology [9,10]⁠, and search and rescue operations are more efficient [11,12].
Some UAS reviews have been carried out in Latin America related to different community uses. Experience has been documented, mainly for training, the formalization of land ownership, post-disaster humanitarian aid, environmental activism [13], and other community purposes. There are reviews on wireless sensor networks for applications in communication systems or data communication networks [14,15], and even more specific topics, such as photogrammetry and remote sensing [16]⁠. However, according to the search performed in the literature, there are no reviews in Latin America related to direct applications to the electricity sector.
In the Colombian context, some relevant applications have been carried out in recent years. Examples include monitoring high voltage transmission lines to check the state of mechanical elements and power lines, the transportation of medical equipment that improves the first aid response in rural areas, the protection of natural resources through continuous monitoring, precision agriculture to improve productivity in that sector [17], and other projects, such as the Enel-Codensa dragon drone, which is capable of burning kites and other electrical waste [18]. However, in Colombia, there are no review articles on UAS applications and regulations that can describe new usage, contributions to the scientific community, or special applications in productive sectors. The lack of appropriation or adaptation of technology to international experiences in the local environment is also evident.
Therefore, the main contribution of this work is to show how UASs can help in particular tasks and the opportunity to improve them. In addition, based on the analysis of the uses in the electrical industry worldwide, we determine the possible application to the Colombian context and the appropriation of these technologies in the country. Furthermore, based on their applications and current regulations, a categorization of UASs is proposed according to the electrical and commercial sectors of the country.
The rest of the document is divided into six more sections. Section 2 shows prior knowledge about drones. Section 3 presents the applications of UAVs in Latin America and Colombia. Section 4 presents the current UAS regulations. In Section 5, the paper discusses the opportunities and alternatives for UAVs in the electricity sector, considering regulations from different states. The discussion is provided in Section 6, and finally, the conclusions are presented in Section 7.

2. Background

Since their creation, UASs have been used in many fields because of their construction, sustainability in flight, versatility, and other characteristics of their application, as an industry that continues to expand.

2.1. Unmanned Aircraft across the Years

The preliminary designs were based on models manufactured by inventors, such as the so-called father of aeronautics, George Cayley, in 1809 [19], Felix du Temple, and A. F. Mozhaiski in 1857 [20] with model tests, technical calculations, and design of the full-size apparatus. Those pioneers provided ideas and layouts that have become the basis for current designs. Cayley, for example, made an adaptation of the whirling arm demonstrated first by Benjamin Roberts in 1747, adding a horizontal hinge at the arm’s junction with the vertical drive shaft so that the arm acted as a lever. He took notes on sustainability and the direct proportionality between resistance and fluid density [19]⁠. Furthermore, designs such as the F. du Temple airplane and the A. F. Mozhaiski engine designed in 1881 like a steam generator torpedo boat, adapted and tested in 1882 in an airplane, were the first step toward the future of aviation and the UASs themselves [20].
The first UAV device was created in Great Britain in 1916, the Ruston Proctor Aerial Target, based on designs by Nikola Tesla’s radio control. Like many inventions, its evolution was dictated by World War II, so UAV technology was driven by the military industry, which upgraded it to its modern form in 1982 with battlefield UAVs, led by the Israeli Air Force to recognize the enemy position [21]. As stated above, the military industry has driven drone technology more than any other.
Today, drones are used for much more than military purposes and are common in companies offering delivery, mobility, and special services [22]. In addition, drone racing has recently become popular in the robotics research community. As the demands of the race change according to the terrain and difficult obstacles, it is pushing the limits of robotics, increasing its ability to respond using new control techniques and algorithms [23].

2.2. Classification of UAV

As a result of the evolution of engineering in the last 60 years, UASs are more efficient, smaller, and powerful. They also have better batteries and protection against signal errors. The term UAS was adopted by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to separate it from drones and was used in the military industry. These vehicles can be classified according to their application, as they are commonly used with embedded cameras, GPS, accelerometers, energy sensors, thermal sensors, distance sensors, altimeters, mobile hotspots (access points), RFIDs, and wireless connections. Table 1 shows the classification of UAS by application in five large categories [24].

3. Latin America and Colombia

Latin America represents a potential in the UAS market due to its special climatic and topographic characteristics [25]. In fact, several UAS applications are already working as we will analyze with the classification shown in Table 1.

3.1. Emergency

Due to the topology of South America, aid organizations mostly have trouble reaching remote populations. For this reason, some workshops have been carried out to perform humanitarian mapping in intricate places [26], helping rescue efforts at disaster sites. Furthermore, the community use of drones in many areas is emerging as a good economic alternative for many people who want to make a career in the use of drones and help other people [13].

3.2. Monitoring and Inspection

The global human population reached 8 billion in mid-November 2022 [27], and Latin America has one of the highest population growth rates after Africa and Asia. Its rise has also increased the energy power demand, requiring an increase in power system expansion and transmission line inspection [28]. Furthermore, vegetation detection has been implemented near high-voltage transmission lines using UAV and LiDAR technology [29]⁠⁠.
Some applications in the civil engineering area must also be mentioned. This particular area has some of the most dangerous assessments for people. Digital image processing and UAV-captured images have been used to evaluate facades [30], assist in the inspection of complicated access constructions, and create a safety construction plan for high-rise buildings [31]. Although the literature shows some advances in research and projects, the use of UAS technology in the electrical sector remains low for Colombia and the Latin American region.

3.3. Earth Sciences

Some applications in this growing market are not regulated, such as in Mexico, where the use of drones in the community has become necessary due to its ability to accurately monitor and map the territory [32]. Real-time monitoring and characterization of Pululahua volcanic activity with software and hardware have been carried out, with ambient information and georeferentiation [33].

3.4. Environmental

Agricultural applications of UAS are the most common in South American countries. Using drones with remote sensors, the vegetation is being monitored to prevent pests [34]. These applications range from a more intricate examination of plants, such as analyzing their nitrogen levels [35]⁠⁠, or estimating the height of the forage that will feed cattle [36]. Furthermore, the use of UAVs to classify and evaluate the development of the vegetable environment [37] and classify and monitor how different plantations evolve over time and different seasons [38,39]⁠⁠ has helped the agronomical context. In another study, for example, UAVs have been used for the real-time monitoring of crops, allowing better understanding and quicker reaction to their needs [40]⁠⁠. The use of UAVs as monitoring tools could complement the work of park rangers in patrol tasks, especially in remote or difficult-to-access areas [41]. Another common application of UAVs is their use in precision agriculture (PA). This sector has been threatened by climate change, and the rapid increase in population is driving production to grow by 70% by 2050 [34], as in the AURORA project (Autonomous Unmanned Robotic Airship Remote Monitoring) in Brazil [42]⁠⁠. Furthermore, vegetation detection has been implemented near high-voltage transmission lines using UAV and LiDAR technology [29]⁠⁠. Additionally, the UAV-based monitoring of pollutant gases, which creates a vertical profile, has been proposed as an alternative to typical measurement stations due to its mobility [43]⁠⁠⁠.
In Colombia, some projects study PA to improve crops [44], mitigate the impacts of climate change in the country, and monitor environmental variables and lower layers of the atmosphere to prevent disasters with the help of a network, such as the air–ground integrated mobile edge network (AGMEN) [45].

3.5. Defemse and Security

In future smart cities [46], many applications of UASs can be implemented, but security operations will continue to be a priority in all South American regions due to the conflict present. It will help security forces in intelligence missions [17] through projects such as ART Quimbaya, bringing surveillance and reconnaissance critical infrastructure, border control, and photography [47]⁠⁠. Additionally, Brazil has deployed drones to monitor the Amazon rainforest and prevent environmental crimes [34]⁠.
Latin America represents a potential in the UAS market due to its special climatic and topographic characteristics [25]⁠. Hence, applications of this technology are endless, e.g., precision agriculture by remotely sensing vegetation health [34]⁠, in future smart cities [46]⁠, to help security forces in intelligence missions [17]⁠ through projects such as ART Quimbaya, bringing surveillance and reconnaissance critical infrastructure, border control, and photography [47]⁠⁠. In recent years, population growth in the region has also increased the energy power demand, requiring an increase in power system expansion and transmission line inspection [28]⁠⁠. Some applications in this growing market are not regulated, such as in Mexico, where the use of drones in the community has become necessary due to its ability to accurately monitor and map the territory [32].
The real-time monitoring and characterization of Pululahua volcanic activity with software and hardware have been carried out, with ambient information and georeferentiation [33]⁠⁠⁠. In Colombia, some projects study PA to improve crops [44] and mitigate the impacts of climate change in the country, and its use to monitor environmental variables and lower layers of the atmosphere to prevent disasters with the help of a network such as the air–ground integrated mobile edge network (AGMEN) [45]⁠⁠⁠. Although the literature shows some advances in research and projects, the use of UAS technology in the electrical sector remains low for Colombia and the Latin American region.

4. Current Regulations for UAS

The regulations of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in North America limit the altitude of the aircraft to approximately 122 m and the maximum speed to 161 km/h. In addition, they register the vehicle and the certified pilot. It should be noted that the FAA has issued a last-generation regulation that forces the entity in charge of air traffic to include UAVs in the North American aerial space through a transmission system included in ground radars [48], the same as the one that detects large aircrafts [49]. Similarly, the Communications and Transports Secretariat (SCT) of Mexico has a regulation under NOM-107-SCT3-2019 [50] that establishes the requirements for the operation of UAVs on Mexican soil. This document describes UAVs by use in three categories: Micro UAVs, Small UAVs, and Big UAVs. These have two subcategories: recreational and private noncommercial or commercial.
Every country has its own regulations as follows: General Directorate of Civil Aeronautics of Guatemala has a review called RAC101-UAV regulation [51]⁠⁠⁠. The Nicaraguan Institute of Civil Aviation does not have a formal regulation, but is mentioned in Ley 595 of the rules of civil international aviation [52,53]. El Salvador published UAV regulations in 2018 by the Civil Aviation Authority, which describe the operating rules, limitations, and classification by use [54]⁠⁠⁠. Furthermore, the Agencia Hodureña de Aeronáutica Civil (AHAC) of Honduras determines the rules RAC-02, annex 8, giving a classification of UASs as micro, mini, small, and large. They also classify UASs by commercial, private, and institutional [55], including registration documents for pilots. As in Honduras, Costa Rica has a similar classification with micro, small, light, and large categories and shares the same limitations [56]⁠⁠. Finally, to complete the Central American region, there is Belize, where there is no UAS regulation. Instead, it has a note on the Belize Department of Civil Aviation website [57] that accepts only applications for drone authorization from international drone operators.
In the same way, Panama, through its entity called the Civil Aviation Authority, rules the operation of UAS on its territory with the law AAC/DSA/DG/01-16 in 2016 [58]⁠⁠. The classification is similar to that described in the Central American region, with four classes, such as micro, small, light, and heavy. It can also be classified into two kinds of operations: civil and state. Venezuela also has an institution dedicated to UAS regulation called the National Institute of Civil Aviation, with almost the same classification: class 1 (mini), class 2 (light), class 3 (lightweight), and class 4 (heavy). Furthermore, a classification by operation has three possible uses: recreational, private, and commercial [59]⁠⁠. In Ecuador, the institution called the General Directorate of Civil Aviation, under the resolution DGAC-DGAC-2020-0074-R, regulates the operation of UAS in its range, but it is only categorized by commercial activities and only to avoid damage to third parties with insurance [60]⁠⁠⁠.
In Latin American countries such as Peru and Chile, the laws on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are not very clear on official government websites. However, both countries require users to register and certify both the pilot and ownership of the UAV in a national database. In Chile, certain official regulations are provided to the general public by the Director General of Civil Aviation [61,62]⁠⁠. In Peru, official information can be found on the website of the Ministry of Transport and Communications [63]⁠⁠⁠ and briefly mentions the registration, accreditation, and overflight permit that the owner or pilot must obtain before flying a UAV according to the law N° 30740 [64], but does not have a proper classification.
Both Uruguay [65]⁠⁠ and Paraguay [66]⁠⁠⁠ have resolutions that regulate the use of remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), which are written in a similar manner. They both classify UAVs by weight and talk about which operations can be performed. On the other hand, Uruguay only needs explicit permission from the aeronautical authorities if the flight is for something other than sports or recreation. Bolivia and its Civil Aviation Authority classify airplanes according to their maximum take-off weight; planes from 0 to 199 g are considered small, and planes from 200 g to 35 kg are considered medium. Similarly, the small classification is used for recreational operations and the second for aerial work [67]⁠⁠⁠.
In particular, the countries that have more explicit legislation in the Latin American region are Argentina and Brazil, where the former has an explicit regulation that includes more than 70 articles and deals with application areas, weight classification, technical characteristics, specifications of the nature of operation, necessary authorizations, and regulation of different uses [68]. The second controls the flight rules; the registration with the government entity explains the authorizations required for projects that seek to work with UAVs and the certificates that must be obtained [69]⁠⁠⁠. In summary, as seen in Table 2, there are regulations by use in 44.4% of the region and by size in the other 44.5%, some of them being shared in each resolution. Furthermore, Guyana and Suriname do not have any classification like the other members of Latin America, and their regulations are insufficient. Typically, UASs can be placed into groups based on their maximum take-off weight.
On the other hand, the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) has a document called Easy Access Rules for Unmanned Aircraft Systems [70]. This document expresses the rules and procedures of UAS operations and determines three general categories of operation: open, specific, and certified. The first category, called open, has a maximum take-off mass of less than 24 kg. The remote pilot ensures that the UAV is kept at a safe distance from people, that it does not fly over groups of people, and that it has a visual line of sight (VLOS) at all times. It is limited to 120 m from the closest point on the Earth’s surface, and the UAV cannot carry dangerous payloads.
The second category, called specific, refers to those cases where one of the requirements laid down in the open category is not met. Operations are carried out with an unmanned aircraft with a maximum characteristic dimension of up to 3 m and a typical kinetic energy of up to 34 kJ, less than 150 m above the surface. In the second category, aircrafts are limited to uncontrolled airspace operations. In the third category, some operations shall be grouped in the certified category only where the operation is carried out under any of the following conditions: over the assembly of people, when it involves the transport of people, or involves the carriage of dangerous goods that can cause high risk to third parties in the event of an accident [70]⁠⁠⁠. As in Europe, the Asian continent has its regulations on UAS. On the website https://drone-laws.com (accessed on 20 July 2022), there is a complete database updated by volunteers with creative commons licenses, discriminated by countries and their legislation. Almost all have similar regulations on aircraft types, operations, and limitations [71].
The Colombian statute is controlled by the Unidad Administrativa Especial de Aeronáutica (UAEAC), which governs the use of UAVs under the RAC 91 regulations, specifically in Appendix 13 [72]. These standards indicate a classification into three different levels for UAS, and its limitations are shown in Table 3.
  • Class A: The operation of the UAS is allowed under the limitations established by UAEAC RAC 91, Appendix 13, and it has a maximum take-off weight between 250 g and 25 kg; it does not require authorization due to its low risk.
  • Class B: This kind of UAS exceeds the maximum take-off weight and is up to 150 kg; therefore, UAEAC always requires authorization, even though its operation may involve low risk.
  • Class C: This last classification of UAS corresponds to aircraft that exceed 150 kg at maximum take-off weight and are used to overfly international airspace or transportation for which, for now, their operation in Colombian airspace is not authorized. The authorization for this type of UAS is only for scientific research and development and is highly restrictive from UAEAC [73]⁠⁠⁠.

5. Opportunities and Alternatives

5.1. Some General Applications

Nowadays, unmanned aircraft vehicles are present in many human activities, helping in difficult situations [74,75]⁠⁠⁠, bringing innovative ideas [76]⁠⁠⁠ and new possibilities in many other industry applications [77]⁠⁠⁠. UASs have the ability to do things that were not possible before [78]⁠⁠⁠. With their help, we can reach places where piloted aircraft cannot [79]⁠⁠⁠, and even futuristic applications become reality [80]⁠⁠⁠. Two technologies are mixed in [81], using a facial recognition UAS with the aim of helping reduce violence and crime in Latin America. Researchers used a handmade UAV and a commercial embedded system board, based on a convolutional neural network to build a database implemented on the board. Furthermore, research has been carried out to achieve a forest inventory [82]⁠⁠⁠, and maximum power tracking for UAVs [83]⁠⁠.
Electrical mobility has been a world revolution. UAVs are part of this e-mobility, and all the systems involved can be improved [84,85], giving them more autonomy by improving their beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS) [86]⁠⁠, such as certain applications, which need accuracy to reach intricate places and precision tasks [87]⁠⁠, and ecosystems in industry 4.0, where data traffic digitization is necessary and the use of drone networks is expanding [88]⁠⁠⁠. In applications such as deliveries, large companies are testing UAS to complete these tasks, but the performance of drone deliveries must be optimized and human harm avoided [89]⁠⁠⁠.
With all the opportunities, applications, and research presented above, it is necessary to consider the vulnerability of UAS due to their omnipresent operations on the internet of things (IoT) and industrial internet of things (IIoT) systems [90]. Furthermore, security and privacy are other issues to consider [22]⁠⁠⁠ and, even more, public safety, precisely because they are vulnerable to cyberattacks and can be used as signal sniffers, signal jammers, or in any other harmful way [91]. Taking into account the versatility of uses, these aspects of UAS must be reinforced to improve them [92]⁠⁠, making them safer.

5.2. Electrical Sector Applications

In the installations of electricity companies, it is becoming more common to employ different methods to perform regular jobs that were previously performed manually. The structural aspects of the power lines should be monitored to keep the power distribution running in countries. Therefore, the use of UASs helps such companies as the Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) perform diagnostics on their distribution and power lines through a drone project [93]. Similarly, other electric utility companies have begun to use UASs to inspect vegetation near power lines, insulators, and substations to prevent damage and failures [49].
Another application in the electrical industry is carried out: the use of deep learning to build a real-time power line detection network, based on convolutional neural networks from images of visible light and infrared images taken by several UAVs, to avoid other self-driving drones colliding with electrical power facilities [94]⁠⁠. Similarly, the British Columbia Transmission Corporation (BCTC) has considered including UAVs in routine and emergency line inspections to prevent injuries to their employees and reduce costs and greenhouse gas emissions. BCTC has around 18,000 km of high-voltage transmission lines through the mountains of British Columbia and uses helicopters with crew inspectors; this type of work is considered dangerous and expensive, and the advantages of using UAVs have been seen to replace them [95]⁠⁠⁠. At the same time, visual inspection has become an advantage to apply in rural electrical installations [96]⁠⁠⁠.
Electrical discharges caused by the corona effect are identified with digital image processing applications. In a fog environment, insulators are prone to discharges; therefore, observation and analysis of the phenomenon can help improve the maintenance of the infrastructure [97]. In addition, image correction technology is shown using data analysis [98] to establish the corresponding relationship between an original image and a distorted image. This is applied to the inspection of electrical assets to obtain the best-quality images. Several studies have been developed to assess the integrity of the transformer core and windings, using frequency response analysis and visual analysis to assess the integrity of the transformer core and windings. Together, these techniques are capable of detecting various deformations of the windings [99].
For example, the Central American region is interconnected between six countries: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. They transmit more than 300 MW in power lines up to 230 kV [100]⁠⁠⁠. Although this region could be a good place to use drones, their use is still in its early stages. Similarly, in Brazil, due to a combination of large-scale centralized expansion projects and small-scale distributed generation, the power system now comprises solar 1.31, wind 12.9, nuclear 2, biomass 14.7, fossil fuels 26.9, and hydro 102.2 gigawatts as of July 2018. With this growth and its critical infrastructure [101]⁠⁠, this country has one of the largest aerial power line structures in the world with a length of up to 95,000 km, and companies such as Companhia Hidreléctrica do Sao Francisco (CHESF) are researching with UAS to monitor its lines [102] with long-range UAS that have inspection platforms and various prototypes [103]⁠⁠.
Let us continue our analysis with Peru, where electrification increased by 97% and generation by 186% in 2015, after the company Statkraft took full control of operations in six regions of Peru in 2014. They started a program named the Performance Improvement Program (PIP) to reduce costs by 15% throughout 2016, 2017, and 2018. Part of this program was the drone inspection project, which was responsible for monitoring the company infrastructure [104]. Similar to Peru, Chile with the company Enel has a program to monitor distribution power lines [105]. In Panama, Empresa de Transmisión Eléctrica S.A. (ETESA) acquired drones to assist in inspection and design tasks [106]⁠⁠. Other Latin American countries are beginning to incorporate UAVs into their operations, as seen at the International Air and Space Fair (FIDAE) in Santiago de Chile in 2018, where last-generation drones were exhibited, showing many possible applications of UASs in the continent [107].

5.3. Proposed Re-Categorization

The experience shown above can be used to develop research projects in multiple applications in Colombia and the Caribbean region, with an alliance between universities and electricity companies taking advantage of the gaps in regulation compared to European or US standards, due to its importance in local applications in the electrical sector and others. Therefore, the authors present a possible classification of UASs based on future applications and current regulations in Colombia and other countries, as shown in Table 4.
The main missions of UAV can be divided into two groups: the first is application, and the second is use and level. These two divisions can be categorized as recreational, industrial, and commercial. Regarding the division by application, the recreational category considers two types of operators: non-certified and certified. In addition, the industrial category has three type of operators: Class I, Class II and Class III. Furthermore, a commercial category is proposed with two subcategories: Commercial Type I and Commercial Type II. Regarding the division by usage and training level, it uses the same three categories. Level I of training is required to perform recreational usage, but when the operation compromise assemblies of people or overpass other rules by type of aircraft, it requires level II training and certification. All industry practices require training and certification. Depending on the aircraft and use, the operator must perform levels III, IV and V. Finally, in the commercial case, levels III and IV of training and the appropriate certification will be carried out.
In addition, for anyone who desires to pilot any kind of UAV under any of the above categories, a mandatory training is proposed with five levels. However, this training would not require any certification for the recreational subcategory, and would increase its difficulty level according to the complexity of the UAV usage.
All operations must be within a visual line of sight (VLOS) of up to 500 m horizontally during all flights. All restrictions for class A operations in Table 4 and the European rules of EASA eRules in the open category, subcategory A1 apply. Unlike the first subcategory, all restrictions of UAEAC class A operations are applied, with exceptions for some autonomous operations, and for EASA open category A2 eRules [70] training level 2 is required. The industrial type I subcategory is similar in characteristics to recreational, but with permission to monitor structures and rural power lines, where there are few buildings or large assemblies of people, as shown in Table 4. Small payloads are allowed, and VLOS up to 750 m horizontally is required during all flights, even when the drone is flying on its own. Training level 3 is also required. UAEAC class A operation limits and EASA category open subcategory A3 must be met.
In addition to these rules, as presented in Table 4, the industrial type 2 subcategory needs level 4 of training and certification, and power lines and other important infrastructure can be monitored in building-based cities. Its mid payload may be some certified instruments or tools to complete its tasks. The UAEAC class A operating limits and the EASA specific category apply. The last subcategory, industrial type III, requires all certifications granted by the authorities. It can carry large payloads and is suitable for autonomous operations beyond VLOS (BVLOS). This involves the transport of people, the carriage of dangerous goods, or the conduction of large groups of people. The industrial category in type III of the categorization proposed in Table 4 is particularly good for work with heavy loads, such as laying power lines, loading special materials, or rescuing operators. For this subcategory, the UAEAC class C rules and the EASA certified category apply. Finally, the commercial type I is similar to industrial type I, but is used for commercial purposes only and applies the same regulation as well. The case of commercial type II is similar to industrial type III and is restricted by the same rules.

6. Discussion

Despite the benefits discussed above, UAVs still have many things to consider that need to be closely monitored. Some of these need to be addressed globally because they are capable of scaling established boundaries, and, due to the rapid emergence of commercial UAVs for anyone (hobbyists) and other professional uses, regulations are changing all over the world. It is paramount to keep people safe, and for this reason, it is important to periodically review aircraft to prevent crashes, technical malfunctions, or misuse by operators [108]⁠⁠. As in other countries, there is a government agency in Colombia that regulates the use of UAVs. However, due to corruption issues, there is a concern that people who want to hurt others will use them to do so. Moreover, this entity does not keep track of maintenance, which needs to be performed regularly.
Another issue with using commercial or hobbyist UAVs is navigation and communication modules, which are vulnerable to various security breaches [91]. Generally, there is no encrypted radio signal to control drones. The IEEE 802.11 standard is used in Wi-Fi networks and some vehicles are controlled this way, which is also vulnerable to hijacking [92]. Unfortunately, UAVs can be used to smuggle drugs, contraband, or espionage. In the wrong hands, even with security breaches, it can be used as a weapon against people. Privacy is also one of the main issues associated with the use of commercial UAVs due to their remote control of embedded gadgets, raising privacy concerns related to the use of UAVs. In addition to the problems mentioned above, they can also be hacked to obtain personal information.
Regarding the use in electrical power applications, due to Colombian regulations, they are limited to using class B and class C to perform monitoring tasks or lay power lines between towers. It is important to note that class C is not well regulated and is limited exclusively to scientific research, innovation, and development. Therefore, larger or special payloads must be considered in conceptual designs and must be properly authorized by UAEAC. Furthermore, the current regulation does not consider other classes of UAS that are currently being used in other countries. All of these considerations may make it difficult for energy companies to adopt these innovations on a massive scale.
Using the experience of companies that have researched and implemented UAS technologies in their processes, it is possible to adapt techniques to a Colombian context, considering its climate, bioresources, topography, extension, conflicts, and demand, producing its own developments for the successful implementation of UASs in the electricity sector, combining advanced inspection techniques with the experience of its own company, in addition to some UAS projects being run in the country [109]⁠. The proposed categorization is intended to help review the current regulation to include other categories due to its use, size, and commercial application, to address emerging uses of UASs.

7. Conclusions

This article provided an overview of the current state of UAS applications around the world, highlighting the Colombian perspective, opportunities, and challenges. The integration of UASs into routine inspections and monitoring tasks has been quickly accepted. Reviewing guidelines is important to understand how misuse can affect critical infrastructures. Furthermore, Colombia can improve its process of embracing this technology and prepare for the future by considering other prospects in addition to the cases of the United States or Latin America. Other experiences can be considered, such as European and Asian research and even local experiences. The reclassification of UASs that the authors suggest in this document is intended to be a guide for reviewing the laws in the country on how it can be used for commercial, industrial, and recreational applications. Performing monitoring and operating tasks with traditional systems can be more expensive than those performed with UASs. In this direction, operations have already been carried out in fields such as agriculture, precision fumigation, and the monitoring of climatological variables, reducing costs and increasing profits. More research is required to deal with problems caused by sharing the same airspace among UASs and other manned aircraft, as it can represent a risk. Furthermore, conventional radar systems, which are widely implemented, cannot detect these small aircraft, which is necessary to avoid collisions or any other damage. Although in Colombia there are already experiences and investigations about UASs engaged by transmission and distribution power companies, there are not many documents to help with this future work.
Future work can be applied by collecting and analyzing findings on UAS deployments throughout the country or the Latin American region to contrast them with the categorization proposed in this document and the current regulation, seeking greater technological appropriation and expansion of its use.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.J.S.-Z.; methodology, G.J.S.-Z. and L.I.-G.; writing original draft preparation, G.J.S.-Z., L.I.-G. and J.E.C.-B.; writing, review, and editing, G.J.S.-Z., L.I.-G. and J.E.C.-B.; visualization, G.J.S.-Z., L.I.-G. and J.E.C.-B.; validation, resources, supervision, project administration, and funding acquisition, G.D.Z.-M. and R.G.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research project received funding from Minciencias-Colombia under project number 79926. This project is in the hedge fund of the National Program of Science, Technology, and Innovation in Energy and Mining and the policies to foster CT+I.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the Grupo de Investigación Teleinformática y Tele Automática, Facultad de Minas, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Medellín.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table
Table 1. Categorization of UAS by application, based on [24].
Table 1. Categorization of UAS by application, based on [24].
CategoryUse
EmergencySearch and rescue
Natural disaster management
Humanitarian help
Ambulance aid
Monitoring and inspectionReal state infrastructure inspection
Power lines inspection
Insurance documentation
Earth sciencesArchaeology documentation
Geography documentation
Cartography documentation
EnvironmentalSoil moisture evaluation
Gas level evaluation
Agricultural crops monitoring
Defense and securityTraffic surveillance
Drug monitoring
Port security
Table
Table 2. Latin America overview of the current status of UAV regulations and classification.
Table 2. Latin America overview of the current status of UAV regulations and classification.
Type of Classification for RegulationCountries
UseMexico, El Salvador, Honduras, Venezuela, Ecuador, Perú, Paraguay, Uruguay
Takeoff massCosta Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panamá, Colombia, Chile, Bolivia
Fully regulatedArgentina, Brazil
Table
Table 3. Operation limits by UAEAC authority, based on [73].
Table 3. Operation limits by UAEAC authority, based on [73].
Class AClass BClass C
Maximum takeoff weight 25 kgMaximum takeoff weight 150 kgClass C are mainly experimental aircraft in the country, so, the operations are carried out by duly recognized or authorized public, or private entities for the exclusive purposes of scientific research, innovation, and development.
Maximum speed 80 km/h.Maximum speed 100 km/h.
Visual Line of Sight (VLOS) up to 500 m, horizontally during all flights.Visual Line of Sight (VLOS) up to 750 m, horizontally during all flights.
The operation cannot be directly over the public, crowds, buildings, cities, or other populated areas.Every flight must be up to 123 m over earth or water.
The entire operation must be daytime only. It is only allowed at night in open spaces and unpopulated areas, free of obstacles, and the UAS must have bright lights to see it.Visibility conditions cannot be less than 5 km from its location.
Every flight must be up to 123 m over earth or water.Minimum distance from clouds is 150 m.
Visibility conditions cannot be less than 5 km from its location.Its operation cannot be carried out from an aerodrome, heliport or in its vicinity within a radius of 3 km.
Minimum distance from clouds is 150 m.Any operation that requires aerial works other than image capture requires authorization from the UAEAC.
The operation may only be carried out within Class G airspace (not regulated).Rescue and search operations, or similar missions that hinder those carried out by authorities or rescue organizations, cannot be carried out.
Sprinkling activities may not be executed.A person may only operate one UAS at a time, except for those cases in which the UAEAC authorizes swarm-type operations.
Its operation cannot be carried out from an aerodrome, heliport or in its vicinity within a radius of 3 km.Animals cannot be transported. However, the UAS can be used in agricultural tasks in which certain types of live insects are used for the control of pests authorized by the UAEAC.
Object transport activities of any kind may not be accomplished.Explosive, corrosive, biological risk materials, weapons, or any type of merchandise considered dangerous or prohibited may not be transported.
Autonomous operations will not be possible.Operations may not be carried out less than 3.6 km from border areas or cross-border limits with neighboring states.
Explosive, corrosive, biological risk materials, weapons, or any type of merchandise considered dangerous or prohibited may not be transported.In application of the general rules on the right of way and collision avoidance, a UAS must always give way to any other manned aircraft that is using the same airspace.
Table
Table 4. Proposed recategorization for the use of UASs in Colombia.
Table 4. Proposed recategorization for the use of UASs in Colombia.
Main DivisionCategoryTypeClassification
ApplicationRecreationalNon-CertifiedDoes not require a certification but requires first level of training
CertifiedRequires certification and second level of training
IndustrialClass IRequires certification and third level of training
Class IIRequires certification and fourth level of training
Class IIIRequires certification and fifth level of training
CommercialClass IRequires certification and third level of training
Class IIRequires certification and fourth level of training
Usage and levelRecreationalLevel ITraining level required for non-certified users
Level IITraining level required for certified users
IndustrialLevels III, IV and VTrainig level required for industrial certifications, the required level depends of the usage and aircraft type
CommercialLevels III and IVTraining level required for commercial certifications, the required level depends of the usage and aircraft type
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Sánchez-Zuluaga, G.J.; Isaza-Giraldo, L.; Zapata-Madrigal, G.D.; García-Sierra, R.; Candelo-Becerra, J.E. Unmanned Aircraft Systems: A Latin American Review and Analysis from the Colombian Context. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1801. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031801

AMA Style

Sánchez-Zuluaga GJ, Isaza-Giraldo L, Zapata-Madrigal GD, García-Sierra R, Candelo-Becerra JE. Unmanned Aircraft Systems: A Latin American Review and Analysis from the Colombian Context. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(3):1801. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031801

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sánchez-Zuluaga, Gabriel J., Luisa Isaza-Giraldo, Germán Darío Zapata-Madrigal, Rodolfo García-Sierra, and John E. Candelo-Becerra. 2023. "Unmanned Aircraft Systems: A Latin American Review and Analysis from the Colombian Context" Applied Sciences 13, no. 3: 1801. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031801

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