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Article

Sedimentological Analysis of the Turbidite Sequence in the Northern Part of the West Crocker Formation, Northwest Sabah

by
Nurul Afifah Mohd Radzir
*,†,‡,
Che Aziz Ali
‡ and
Kamal Roslan Mohamed
‡
Basin Research Group, National University of Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Current address: Geology Program, Department of Earth Science and Environment, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, National University of Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia.
‡
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(23), 12149; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312149
Submission received: 27 October 2022 / Revised: 21 November 2022 / Accepted: 23 November 2022 / Published: 28 November 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Transport)
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Abstract

:
Gravity-flow deposits form the northern part of the Crocker Formation (Oligocene–Early Miocene), with the most significant interpretation as a sand-rich system in the proximal and a mud-rich system in the distal area of the deep-water turbidite depositional setting. Seven outcrop localities in the northern-part area were selected for mapping and sampling, starting from Kota Kinabalu up to the Telipok area to evaluate the sedimentary sequence. This study used mapping, field observation, and log sketches in the field, as well as extensive analysis and interpretation of sedimentological methods to investigate the sequence of sediment outcrops in the Crocker Formation area of northwest Sabah. During the fieldwork, five main facies were found, namely, massive sandstone facies (f1), graded sandstone facies (f2), laminated sandstone facies (f3), interbedded sandstone and mudstone facies (f4), and mudstone facies (f5). These northern-part outcrops are interpreted as being deposited from the highest to the lowest turbidity currents and the actuality of pelagic mudstone deposition, based on their fining-coarsening-upward pattern. The five geometrical bodies were proposed as laterally contiguous depositional environments, namely, (1) inner fan channel, (2) inner fan channel–levee complex, (3) mid-fan channelized lobes, (4) non-channelized lobes/distal lobes, and (5) basin plains. The facies interpretation shows that the study area consists of lobes, channel–levee complexes, and levees formed in a fan of a deep-water basin setting, with the basinal plain enveloped by thick mudstone deposits. This northern part of the Crocker Formation is interpreted as a multiple-sourced sediment, shelf-fed, Type II, low-efficiency, and sand-rich turbidite depositional system.

1. Introduction

Sediment gravity flow or mass transport process [1] is the movement of sediment that occurs due to the pull of gravity from the top to the bottom of a slope. It is also defined as a sediment flow or sediment fluid mixture influenced by sediment grains moving due to the influence of gravity [2]. The gravity flow and sediment distribution can be affected by the basinal geometries, sediment supply, and also tectonic activity which becomes part of the triggering mechanisms [3,4]. There are two types of gravity-flow sediment which are (i) sediment flow, and (ii) mass transport flow [5,6,7,8,9]. The end product is classified into (i) complex mass transport, (ii) debris flow, (iii) turbidite and debris co-genetics, and (iv) turbidite current.
Turbidite is a dominant sequence of sediments deposited where this process can transport sediments from the shallower to the deep-water basin [10] and can travel further distances and be deposited in large areas if related to a submarine landslide [11]. Turbidite sediments have various characteristics [4], are usually classified based on several dominant components, have different facies characteristics, and can be identified through field observations and also borehole recordings. The three main components are (i) sand and sediment quantity [12], (ii) flow efficiency [13], and (iii) characteristics of sediment contributors and sediment supply [14], as summarized in Table 1.
Understanding gravity-flow sediments is very important in understanding their natural phenomena [15,16,17] and in the application of science, especially in petroleum exploration and production, determining potential hazards during petroleum production and also determining the risk of geohazards in the future [18]. In northwest Borneo, specifically the Crocker Formation (Figure 1), a large expanse of Paleogene clastic sedimentary rocks of mainly deep-water origin has been outlined by [19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30] and many more. The turbidite succession represents deposition in a tectonically active margin during the subduction of the Proto-South China Sea with the Sunda Shelf opening from Eocene to Holocene [31,32,33]. In this paper, the sedimentological characteristics of the northern part of the formation are described, based on field observation in the new cutting outcrops of the Pan Borneo Highway, which extends from Kota Kinabalu to the Telipok areas, and includes seven (7) sedimentary rock outcrop localities. The seven localities are as follows: (1) Hap Seng Quarry, Telipok, (2) KFC, UMS, (3) Prime Kondo University, (4) Lorong Suria Inanam, (5) Kg. Divatto, (6) Taman Okk Lojungah, and (7) Pekan Kinarut (Figure 1). Detailed sedimentological work in conjunction with the occurrence of sediment deposits with associated turbidites gives further insight into the sedimentary processes, the depositional setting, and the type of turbidite depositional systems in this Paleogene basin.

2. Geological Setting

Turbidite and deep-water sedimentary deposits were formed in the Sabah deep-water basin from the late Cretaceous to early Eocene age because of continuous subduction events [34,35]. Late Cretaceous to early Eocene sediments are classified as Trusmadi and the Crocker Formation. This formation consists of sandstone, shale, limestone, and tuff. These sediments were deposited in the central part of the deep-water basin and were then covered by the Rijang-Split Formation of the ophiolite sequence, consisting of ultramafic and mafic rocks [34,36,37,38,39,40]. The sediments were contributed to by drainage from Indo-China [29,41]. During this period, the late Cretaceous Lupar Line, located in the eastern part of Borneo, served as a marker for the shallow-sea platform [42]. The deposited sediments were then deformed and metamorphosed, resulting in phyllites and slates [36,39].
During the Sarawak Orogeny formation event [43], the Rajang Group was thrust and uplifted from the middle Eocene to the late Eocene (Figure 1). During this age, northwest Sabah was dominated by deep-sea marine sediments [29], with the shallow-sea platform advancing northward but still controlled by the Lupar Line. The formation and deposition of sediments in the basin continued to form the Temburong, Setap Shale, and Western Crocker Formations until the Oligocene age. During the early Oligocene age, the shallow-sea platform moved east until it reached the Mersing Line, which is located between the Lupar and the Baram Delta Lines, causing the deposition of delta sediments forming the Meligan Formation, and limestone shallow marine sediments forming the Melinau Formation around the edge of the Bruneian basin and Sabah [29]. A thick sequence of ocean sediments and deep seabed sediments was deposited in deep troughs in the west and northwest of Sabah. The Crocker Formation is a sequence of deep-sea sediments that have deformed and thrust in this area [34,40,44].
The Crocker Formation in the west consists of sandstone with mudstone/shale, whereas the Crocker Formation in the east (part of the Rajang Group) consists of argillite. The Crocker Formation in the west is younger than the Crocker Formation in the east. During the Sarawak Orogeny (late Eocene), the uplift of the tectonic plates caused and triggered the formation of deep-water sediments, including Crocker, Temburong, and Setap Shale, which are younger than the turbidite deposits of the Rajang Group [28,45] (Figure 1).

3. Materials and Methods

This study involves two stages which are, (i) extensive fieldwork, and (ii) sedimentological work.

3.1. Fieldwork

Extensive fieldwork was performed to get the input of mapping, sedimentological logging, and sampling of the potential exposed outcrops. The data collected included the location of the localities, the determination of the sedimentary structures and fossils, and the measurement of the strike and dip of outcrops. In addition, the thickness of each bed was measured and the changes in the beds were recorded, with photographs being taken to document the outcrops present.

3.2. Sedimentalogical Work

This stage was performed using facies analysis, facies association analysis, and depositional environment interpretation. This analysis focused on several facies based on the parameters of texture, lithology, sediment structure, and the presence of fossils and trace fossils in the study outcrop sequence. Facies association analysis was performed by classifying the published facies into specific groups and interpreting the depositional environment of the study outcrop sequence.

4. Results

4.1. Facies Analysis

The study area was classified into five main facies, namely, massive sandstone facies (f1), graded sandstone facies (f2), parallel laminated sandstone facies (f3), interbedded sandstone and mudstone facies (f4l), and mudstone facies (f5).

4.1.1. Massive Sandstone Facies (f1)

Description: This is a dominant rock layer with coarse to fine sand grains, silt, or mud-sized matrix (<20 percent) and is occasionally found with coarse to very coarse sand grains (<5 percent). These facies are present in single layers and amalgamations with a thickness starting from 10 cm to more than 1 m (Figure 2). The bottom border is sharp and flat, with an eroded and irregular border. Sorting is moderate to good with mud matrix support clasts. The presence of sedimentary structures, such as parallel laminations, fluted casts, load casts, flame structures, tool marks, and rip-up mud clasts was observed. Cruziana sp., Nereites sp., and Chondrites sp. are examples of bioturbation structures (Figure 3 and Figure 4).
Interpretation: The massive sandstone facies can be formed through two depositional methods, namely, high-density turbidity currents or debris flows [26,43].

4.1.2. Graded Sandstone Facies (f2)

Description: These facies have a fining-upward grain size trend and form a complete to incomplete Bouma sequence (Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5). The bed at the bottom is sharp, eroded, or irregular, with coarser-sized grains. These facies show poor sorting at the bottom which improves vertically upwards. This facies layer contains parallel, laminated, cross-laminated, and ripple structures.
Interpretation: These facies were deposited because of high to low-concentration turbidite current flow processes, where the movement was not controlled by the matrix concentration [5].

4.1.3. Parallel Laminated Sandstone Facies (f3)

Description: These facies are dominated by fine sand- to silt-sized grains, with a small amount of silt or mud-sized matrix (<20 percent). Parallel lamination is observed in the outcrop sequence layers, but no trace fossils can be found in these facies (Figure 6).
Interpretation: The presence of a powerful current over ripples or dune structures can re-transport fine sand sediment, causing the sediment grains to rearrange in a new layer with a horizontal plane.

4.1.4. Interbedded Sandstone and Mudstone Facies (f4)

Description: The sand-to-mud ratio of these facies is 1:1 or more (>1) according to the layer thicknesses. The sedimentary structures found are wavy and parallel laminations (Figure 6 and Figure 7).
Interpretation: Fine-grained sand sediments were deposited by low-density turbidity currents at the bottom of the water, whereas mud grains are synonymous with suspended transportation in calm energetic currents. Each interbedded deposit formed in conjunction with sand and mudstone showing that sediment deposition occurred at the same time and underwent a transition process [46] or a change in current energy and velocity [47,48].

4.1.5. Mudstone Facies (f5)

Description: These facies contains silt to mud fine sediments. There are parallel lamination-like structures, and no bioturbation traces were found (Figure 6 and Figure 7).
Interpretation: Usually, pelagic or hemipelagic mud sediments are transported through suspension processes [49] before being deposited in open and quiet waters.
Applsci 12 12149 g005 550
Figure 5. Characteristics of outcrop lithofacies in the study area. (A) Interbedded sandstone and mudstone and also thick sandstone outcrops at the L3. (B) Interbedded sandstone and mudstone, mudstone and massive sandstone with fault structure (red dashed line) at the upper area of L3 outcrop. (C) Sandstone with fault structure (red dashed line) at L3 area. (D) Massive sandstone was found in the L7 area. (E) Interbedded sandstone and mudstone are found in L6. (F) Thick sandstone outcrops show the amalgamation beds in L6.
Figure 5. Characteristics of outcrop lithofacies in the study area. (A) Interbedded sandstone and mudstone and also thick sandstone outcrops at the L3. (B) Interbedded sandstone and mudstone, mudstone and massive sandstone with fault structure (red dashed line) at the upper area of L3 outcrop. (C) Sandstone with fault structure (red dashed line) at L3 area. (D) Massive sandstone was found in the L7 area. (E) Interbedded sandstone and mudstone are found in L6. (F) Thick sandstone outcrops show the amalgamation beds in L6.
Applsci 12 12149 g005

4.2. Facies Associations

4.2.1. Channels

These facies associations show a fining-upward sequence with sharp (Figure 6 and Figure 7), and well-defined grain size transition sites between each sand-to-mud layer. The upper bed (mudstone facies) occasionally contained mud clasts in the beds (Figure 3). Parallel laminated structures are also found within the sandstone beds. The lower part of these facies associations is dominated by coarse-sized grains (sandstone) transported by high-density turbidity currents. It can also be identified by the presence of current effects such as ripples, flutes, and erosion at the bottom of the sediment bed. The presence of a basal erosive surface represents the multi-reactivation and lateral migration of deposits [50] which is a characteristic usually found in channels.

4.2.2. Levees

These facies associations are characterized by a thin to medium thickness followed by fine-grain-sized sedimentary deposits interspersed with mud sediments in the uppermost part (Figure 6 and Figure 7). Generally, the transportation of abundant and concentrated sediments in turbidity currents can slow and overflow, forming levee deposits [51], which have a fining-upward sequence with varying amalgamation and sediment thickness.
Applsci 12 12149 g006 550
Figure 6. Sedimentary log of L1 to L3, north region of the northwest Crocker Formation.
Figure 6. Sedimentary log of L1 to L3, north region of the northwest Crocker Formation.
Applsci 12 12149 g006
Applsci 12 12149 g007 550
Figure 7. Sedimentary log of L4 to L7, north region of the northwest Crocker Formation.
Figure 7. Sedimentary log of L4 to L7, north region of the northwest Crocker Formation.
Applsci 12 12149 g007

4.2.3. Lobes

The entire facies association shows an upward thickening and coarsening sequence (Figure 6 and Figure 7). The base structures, such as load casts and flutes are not found at the bottom of the layer, but consist of sand grains with a thin thickness. A vertical sequence that thickens and coarsens upwards indicates that these deposits formed in the lobes.

4.2.4. Basin Plains

These facies associations are pelagic sediments from a very fine sediment fall that are transported in suspension. The deposited pelagic sediments originated from various directions and form a wide and thick spread.

5. Discussion

5.1. Depositional Setting

The study area consists of a deep-water fan system starting from the area of the channels, levees, lobes, and basin plains. All facies associations collect to form a depositional environment based on zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the deep-water depositional environment (Figure 8).
Zone 1 is the inner fan, consisting of the channel–levees complexes (Figure 8). This proximal area receives its sediments from the canyon and experiences high-density turbidite currents that can transport and deposit sediments ranging in size from coarse sand to medium sand, forming a fining-upward sequence pattern (Figure 8). The proximal area faces a hypoconcentrated density flow where the flow is associated with the matrix strength and grain friction [15]. The density of the flow causes the presence of erosion and records the sharpness and eroded bed (Figure 9). This zone can be a good hydrocarbon accumulation area because it has a high sand content, thick sediment thickness, and good sorting properties with a wider diameter distribution [52].
Zone 2 is the middle fan section consisting of lobes (Figure 8). The lobes in zone 2 consist of channelized lobes and non-channelized lobes. Channelized lobes are distinguished by the presence of channels/distributary channels in the vertical sequence upward of the sedimentary log, as shown in L4 (Figure 7), whereas non-channelized lobes are perceived by the absence of channel sequences in the interpreted vertical sequence. These channelized lobes have a sandstone lithology (f1 and f2) with a medium to thin thickness and a fining-upward sequence pattern and are usually located in the upper lobe (lobe axis) (Figure 8). However, non-channelized lobes are usually located around the proximal lobe to the end lobe, as shown in L1 (Figure 6). These lobes do not show any combination of fining-upward sequence patterns in the entire vertical sequence. This pattern is usually formed by the spreading of the tips of the distributary channels in the upper part of the lobe. However, if there are any edges or slopes in that area, zone 2 is reachable by the tips of distributary channels.
Zone 2 is located in front of zone 1, and their sediment transportation depends on medium to high-density turbidity currents, as well as debris currents (Figure 9). The basis of their sediments support mechanism is equivalent to the concentrated density flows which possess both hypoconcentrated and turbidity current characteristics [15,53]. The medium to high-density turbidite currents was proficient in depositing medium-sized sand sediments with a medium thickness (thickness less than zone 1), good to moderate sorting, and low-matrix content (Figure 10). The transportation of this medium-density turbidity current results in sediment characteristics that have a low-matrix content, high authigenic content, high porosity, and permeability [54]. The entire zone exhibits coarsening-upward sequence characteristics, whereas the presence of distributary channels in the lobes indicates a fine-upward sequence pattern within a vertical coarsening-upward sequence.
Zone 3 is the area of the distal lobe located in the outer fan of the deep-water depositional environment (Figure 8). This zone is dominated by fine- to very fine-grained layers of thin thickness, with repeated layers, coarsening upwards with the overall sequence. Low-density turbidite currents influence sediment deposition in this zone, which can transport fine-sized sediments to very fine-sized sediments (Figure 9 and Figure 10). Sandstone and mudstone contents are almost equal in the proximal part of the middle lobe, and the mud content is greater than the sandstone in the distal lobe area. The outer lobe is the farthest part of the lobe (distal) and is dominated by fine sediment layers, such as fine sand, silt, and clay [55].
Zone 4 consists of basin plain areas that are characterized by hemipelagic mudstone sediments (with less than a 0.125 or 0.063 mm grain size). Mudstone deposits range in thickness from 2 to 10 m, and coarse grains, such as sand and coarse silt grains, are rarely found (Figure 10). This section is the farthest part of the deep-water fan, and faces a prolonged quasi-steady mud-rich turbidity flow [53,56], forming a broad and widespread expanse of thick mudstone deposits.

5.2. Depositional System

The facies sequence in the fan system in the northern part is dominated by coarse grain sizes such as sandstone with a thick to very thick thickness that forms a channel–levee complex, as well as channel and lobe geometries. The analysis and interpretation of outcrop localities in the northern part of the Crocker Formation show a sand-rich (Type I), low- efficiency (Type I), and shelf-fed (Type II) deep-water turbidite system [12,13,14] (refer Table 1). This system is a fan that formed due to the sediment contribution from the shelf, which is rich in the sand but has a small amount of mud sediment. This is in line with the two previous studies which stated that the sediment supply to Crocker Formation is caused by the Sunda Continental Shelf that experienced sediment bypass during the Cenozoic era (middle Eocene to late Oligocene) and Mount Schwaner to the east of Sarawak [57,58]. The supply sediments would have been temporarily deposited in the sediment depocenter on the shelf before being transported again by energy currents such as waves, tides, and turbidite currents, causing numerous sand sediments to be deposited in front of the shelf [59]. With the conjunction of density and turbidity current, the basin provides enough space to accommodate the accumulation and deposition of sediments resulting in the formation of various geometrical bodies such as channels, channels–levee complexes, lobes, and channel–lobes complexes. The distal part of the basinal area is the place of accumulation for the thick mudstone.

6. Conclusions

Based on the sedimentary facies and their evaluation, most of the outcrops in the northern part of the northwest Crocker Formation mostly represent a complete deep-water basin environment. Occasionally, as observed in the outcrops, the intervals of massive sandstone facies (f1), graded sandstone facies (f2), parallel laminated sandstone facies (f3), cross-laminated sandstone facies (f4), interbedded sandstone and mudstone facies (f4) and mudstone facies (f5) form a package of turbidity current influences which are representative of a large-scale turbidite deep-water basin. The turbidite basin, interpreted to consist of geometrical bodies such as channels, levees, lobes, and basin plains, is categorized as a sand-rich, low- efficiency, and shelf-fed system. This system represents the bypass sediment supply during the active subduction of the Proto-South China Sea, with the Sunda Shelf opening from the Eocene to the Holocene age. Such results are in line with previous theories and may be useful as depositional indicators in deep-water depositional settings where the outcrops are sparse, and when integrated with other field data evidence, may provide additional clues to the deposition setting and depositional systems of the Crocker Formation.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.A.M.R.; methodology, N.A.M.R., C.A.A. and K.R.M.; formal analysis, N.A.M.R.; investigation, N.A.M.R., C.A.A. and K.R.M.; resources, N.A.M.R.; writing—original draft preparation, N.A.M.R.; writing—review and editing, N.A.M.R.; visualization, N.A.M.R.; supervision, C.A.A. and K.R.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

This research data are part of the author’s research data during the Doctor of Philosophy degree supervised by Che Aziz Bin Ali and Kamal Roslan Bin Mohamed who has retired from academia. The author would like to thank the two supervisors for their guidance during their service in the academic field.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.

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Figure 1. (A) Location of the study area within the geological distribution of Sabah. (B) Location of the outcrops, (1) Hap Seng Quarry, (2) KFC UMS, (3) Prime Kondo University, (4) Lorong Suria Inanam, (5) Kg. Divatto, (6) Taman Okk Lojungah, and (7) Pekan Kinarut. (C) Chronostratigraphic chart of the Sabah area.
Figure 1. (A) Location of the study area within the geological distribution of Sabah. (B) Location of the outcrops, (1) Hap Seng Quarry, (2) KFC UMS, (3) Prime Kondo University, (4) Lorong Suria Inanam, (5) Kg. Divatto, (6) Taman Okk Lojungah, and (7) Pekan Kinarut. (C) Chronostratigraphic chart of the Sabah area.
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Figure 2. Characteristic examples of lithofacies encountered in the study area. (A) Outcrop section showing the sandstone and mudstone with incline bedded at L1. (B) Outcrop section showing the thickness of the interbedded sandstone and mudstone at L1. (C) Interbedded sandstone and mudstone at L1. (D) Syncline structure in the L1. (E) Outcrops of interbedded sandstone and mudstone in L2. (F) Massive sandstone in L2.
Figure 2. Characteristic examples of lithofacies encountered in the study area. (A) Outcrop section showing the sandstone and mudstone with incline bedded at L1. (B) Outcrop section showing the thickness of the interbedded sandstone and mudstone at L1. (C) Interbedded sandstone and mudstone at L1. (D) Syncline structure in the L1. (E) Outcrops of interbedded sandstone and mudstone in L2. (F) Massive sandstone in L2.
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Figure 3. Examples of sedimentary structures in the Crocker Formation. (A) Flame structure found in L1. (B) Complete Bouma sequence from Ta to Tf found in L3. (C) Rip-up mud clasts in L2. (D) Cruziana sp. of trace fossils in L2.
Figure 3. Examples of sedimentary structures in the Crocker Formation. (A) Flame structure found in L1. (B) Complete Bouma sequence from Ta to Tf found in L3. (C) Rip-up mud clasts in L2. (D) Cruziana sp. of trace fossils in L2.
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Figure 4. Examples of sedimentary structures in the Crocker Formation. (A) Trace fossils were established in the sandstone bed at L1. (B) Ophiomorpha sp. originates in the sandstone bed at L3. (C) Water escape structures and convolute structures in the sandstone bed at L3. (D) Flute casts form at the base of a thick sandstone bed at L5. (E) Tool marks trace in the sandstone bed at L7. (F) Coarse sand grain size floated at the base of the graded sandstone bed in L7.
Figure 4. Examples of sedimentary structures in the Crocker Formation. (A) Trace fossils were established in the sandstone bed at L1. (B) Ophiomorpha sp. originates in the sandstone bed at L3. (C) Water escape structures and convolute structures in the sandstone bed at L3. (D) Flute casts form at the base of a thick sandstone bed at L5. (E) Tool marks trace in the sandstone bed at L7. (F) Coarse sand grain size floated at the base of the graded sandstone bed in L7.
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Figure 8. The depositional setting for each component of the facies association interpreted in the study area. Channel shows a fine-upward sequence located in the inner fan (zone 1) part; the levee shows a fine-upward sequence located in the outer channel in the inner and mid fan (zone 1 and zone 2); the channelized lobe shows a coarsening-upward sequence located in the proximal lobe with the presence of a distributary channel, which can be found in the mid fan (zone 2); the distal lobe/non-channelized lobe shows the coarsening-upward sequence located in the distal lobe and no distributary channel are present, which can be found in the outer fan (zone 3); the basin plain is located in the outer of the turbidite fan system.
Figure 8. The depositional setting for each component of the facies association interpreted in the study area. Channel shows a fine-upward sequence located in the inner fan (zone 1) part; the levee shows a fine-upward sequence located in the outer channel in the inner and mid fan (zone 1 and zone 2); the channelized lobe shows a coarsening-upward sequence located in the proximal lobe with the presence of a distributary channel, which can be found in the mid fan (zone 2); the distal lobe/non-channelized lobe shows the coarsening-upward sequence located in the distal lobe and no distributary channel are present, which can be found in the outer fan (zone 3); the basin plain is located in the outer of the turbidite fan system.
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Figure 9. Summary of a depositional model for the northern part of the Crocker Formation. The schematic drawing shows a complete proximal turbidite fan to the basin plain of the deep-water depositional environment in a lateral view.
Figure 9. Summary of a depositional model for the northern part of the Crocker Formation. The schematic drawing shows a complete proximal turbidite fan to the basin plain of the deep-water depositional environment in a lateral view.
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Figure 10. Summary of sediment transport behaviors and sediment characteristics of each zone established in this research. (A) Highest turbidity current related to the proximal zone 1 in the inner fan area. (B) Moderate turbidity current related to the mid fan of the zone 2 area. (C) Low turbidity current illustrated by zone 3 in the outer fan area. (D) The pelagic deposited in the basin plain area.
Figure 10. Summary of sediment transport behaviors and sediment characteristics of each zone established in this research. (A) Highest turbidity current related to the proximal zone 1 in the inner fan area. (B) Moderate turbidity current related to the mid fan of the zone 2 area. (C) Low turbidity current illustrated by zone 3 in the outer fan area. (D) The pelagic deposited in the basin plain area.
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Table
Table 1. Summary of characteristics and depositional system [12,13,14].
Table 1. Summary of characteristics and depositional system [12,13,14].
Component Type of SystemCharacteristics of System
Sand component and quantity of deposits [12]Type 1: Sand dominant
Type 2: Sand dominant and lack of mud
Type 3: Mud dominant		Formed as a result of sandstone deposition in non-channel or outer lobe areas. Produces sandstone bodies and lobes.
Formed as a result of the platform or littoral zone contribution. Produces channel–lobes complex and fan–supra lobes.
Formed from overflows of mud sediment from platforms and slopes. Produces a channel–levee complex.
Flow efficiency [13]Type 1: Low efficiency
Type 2: Medium efficiency
Type 3: High efficiency		Rich in sand contributed by the shelf. Forming lobes that are dominated by sand sediments.
A mixture of sand and silt contributed by fluvial and deltas. Forms aggradation features with mixed lithology.
Rich in fluvial and delta mud. Forming a dominant progradation of mud and sand in the distal area.
Fed-system characteristics and sediment supply [14]Type 1: Hinterland-fed system
Type 2: Shelf-fed system
Type 3: Delta-fed system		Sediment from toe-slope erosion. Does not have a shelf or a very narrow shelf.
Sediments resulting from river transport, coastal currents, and tidal currents. Dominant with sand. Experience the original transport by waves, tides, and ocean floor currents.
Sediment is contributed by rivers. Rich in mud grains.
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Mohd Radzir, N.A.; Ali, C.A.; Mohamed, K.R. Sedimentological Analysis of the Turbidite Sequence in the Northern Part of the West Crocker Formation, Northwest Sabah. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12149. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312149

AMA Style

Mohd Radzir NA, Ali CA, Mohamed KR. Sedimentological Analysis of the Turbidite Sequence in the Northern Part of the West Crocker Formation, Northwest Sabah. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(23):12149. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312149

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mohd Radzir, Nurul Afifah, Che Aziz Ali, and Kamal Roslan Mohamed. 2022. "Sedimentological Analysis of the Turbidite Sequence in the Northern Part of the West Crocker Formation, Northwest Sabah" Applied Sciences 12, no. 23: 12149. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312149

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