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Article

Natural and Architectural Convergence: A Model of Nature-Based Strategies in the Architectural Design Domain

by
Chra Hunar Ahmed
1,* and
Hoshyar Qadir Rasul
2
1
Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Salahaddin University, Erbil 44002, Iraq
2
Department of City Planning Engineering, College of Technical Engineering, Sulaimani Polytechnic University (SPU), Sulaymaniyah 46001, Iraq
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2023, 13(8), 2015; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13082015
Submission received: 14 June 2023 / Revised: 31 July 2023 / Accepted: 2 August 2023 / Published: 7 August 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Building Environment)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Nature is the major source and basis for architectural design. It is beyond human ability to create the same unlimited changes and dimensions. One of the key actors in minimizing negative impacts on nature and the environment is the architect. Due to the different uses of nature in architectural design and the interdisciplinarity between the approaches and aspects of nature, this study aimed to explore the contributions of nature-based strategies to the architectural design domain and identify the comprehensive relationship between nature and architecture. Through using logical argument, the nature-based strategies of architectural design were classified according to four categories of architectural design principles in a predicted model. For testing and validating the model, one strategy, which included nine nature-based approaches of architectural design with 23 aspects, was evaluated, and the scopes of the approaches were identified. VOSviewer was used for data analysis, and the survey questionnaire method was used for the focus group of architects to evaluate Erbil City’s architectural design. In this survey, 328 responses were received, which were ranked using the four-point Likert scale (most of the time, some of the time, seldom, and never), and the t-test from SPSS software was used to compare the approaches of the selected nature-based strategy. The passive design was the only approach with a positive value from the t-test (3.805) with a p-value of 0.000. Among these 23 evaluated aspects, natural ventilation received the highest mean value (1.91).

1. Introduction

The environment provides common prosperity that belongs to everyone, and it is intended for everyone; thus, everyone has a role to play in preventing local and global climate changes [1]. Environmental issues began to have an increased prominence on the global agenda in the early 1990s, as the public’s knowledge of the effects of unchecked climate change was growing; it is now obvious that creating a connection between architecture and the environment is crucial [2]. The connection between the natural environment and architecture has always been essential, and many architects have recognized the necessity of creating a link with the surrounding environment throughout history and have taken steps to achieve this connection through their works [2]. From the oldest cave homes and crude huts built completely of natural materials to the towering skyscrapers of our century, made up of manufactured grids of glass, steel, and concrete, there have always been diverse relationships between architecture and nature [3].
The symbol is the analogy between natural and architectural homology, in which architecture is a symbolic imitation of nature, and there is a great endeavor to recognize the language of nature via harmonic and symmetric arrangements in architecture. The symbolic concept refers to obtaining goodness, fairness, beauty (aesthetic), and ethics [4]. Ecological thinking is the acknowledgment of the dynamic unity between nature and architecture, the respect for what is already there, and the associated openness to other people [5]. Regarding nature, the form and functional arrangement are significant elements to help reduce the building’s negative effects on the environment and are the most practical and cost-effective connection for improving building efficiency, performance, and feasibility [6]. Many solutions, questions, and complaints have been proposed regarding the connections and relationships between nature and architecture; the number of historical examples illustrates the relationship between nature and architecture in the past. Today’s architecture has advanced beyond the spiritual, symbolic, and aesthetic uses of natural forms to an extremely sophisticated approach to bioinspired performance-based building designs. The incorporation of biological systems, biological processes, and natural science are all innovative applications of the strategies of bio-inspiration approaches of architectural design [7]. Today’s most developed technologies at micro- and nano-scales provide us with a better understanding of new sources of knowledge, inspirations from nature, and natural functions in architectural design, such as the strategies used by animals and plants to adapt to their surrounding environment without having any negative impact on ecosystem [8,9].
Nature can inspire us: First is visual inspiration, which includes forms, shapes, and patterns in nature. Second, conceptual inspiration involves obtaining a grasp of natural processes. Third, computational inspiration involves the environment’s computing processes and our capacity to mimic them [10]. Architectural shapes inspired by nature are one of the three strategies of interaction between nature and architecture; the others include architectural forms that are solidly associated with the context of landscapes, and architectural shapes that are characterized by natural materials. There are always admirable and perfect regulations between man, nature, and architecture [11]. The architecture components that inspired from nature are; the type of materials including programmable, bio-reactor, and mechanical materials; the elements of building behavior, including structure, materials, interior elements, building systems, and building envelopes. Additionally, building behavior targets, including efficient materials, efficient structures, indoor air quality, energy efficiency, water efficiency, air quality, visual comfort, and thermal comfort [12], with acoustic comfort as one of the proper design considerations for efficient structure design [13,14]. The use of nature-inspired materials in bio-engineering and architectural design was inspired by these biological materials that were difficult to harvest in bulk, and toxic in their direct applications, such as hair, bone, and nacre. The nature-inspired materials have the characteristics of multifunctional abilities with reliability and high mechanical resilience in different scales of implementations and their functions are similar to the functions of natural materials [15]. Brick technology can successfully incorporate fractal geometries and waste materials to produce environmentally friendly solutions with improved structural and acoustic characteristics. Ground-recycled tire rubber and fractal-shaped cavities can be combined to create hollow concrete bricks that are lightweight, acoustically efficient, and environmentally friendly. This has led to the development of increased mechanical strength, structural effectiveness, and sound absorption of buildings [16]. Moreover, inspiration from natural mechanisms will help in solving problems in different fields; for example, the overflow behavior in the mechanisms of surface wetting properties in microstructure control led to methods to control macroscale liquid dynamics [17]. Whereas the designer and architects aspire to learn from nature and to drive an optimum solution from it, nature has mastered how to most efficiently obtain a multifunctional structure. The majority of the current works are an imitation of a form in nature, in which the simulations and digital tools are used in the application of complex structures [18]. For architectural design and building construction nature has been the main source of inspiration in different ways and for different degrees of complexity. Le Corbusier, in his Modulor, incorporated the rules of the Fibonacci series to control building dimensions at a very simple level based on the distribution of plant petals [19]. According to Pohl, the inspiration from nature must be well abstracted inside of the context of an interdisciplinary imitation, rather than the direct interpretations. Thus, understanding the biological principles, searching for them, and transferring them to solving design problems are not simple tasks for architects [20].
The relationship between nature and architecture in the previous studies was more focused on a single phrase or simple categorizations; no research studies have structured the comprehensive relationship between nature and architecture. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to predict a comprehensive model of the strategies of nature inspirations according to the architectural design principles.

1.1. The Study Background

1.1.1. Architectural Design Principle

Architecture, distinct from construction-related fields, is the art and practice of designing and building. Architecture is a discipline that satisfies both functional and expressive needs, and it serves both humanistic and aesthetic goals [21]. According to the Roman architect and engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, what represents architecture are firmatis (strength), which must be strong and in good condition; utilitas (utility), which should be beneficial and practical for the users; and venustatis (beauty), which should be pleasant and positive for everyone [22]. From Vitruvius’ representation of the principles of architectural design, different models were proposed; function, form, and meaning are the three dominant principles of architectural design, and the secondary principles are context, modality, and will, which are an application of views of Vitruvius: function (utilitas), construction (firmitas), and aesthetics (venustas). On the one hand, construction falls under the secondary principle of modality, which is derived from the dominant principles of form; on the other hand, aesthetics does not belong to the dominant principle of meaning but rather to the secondary principle of will [23]. In the same manner, the model of function–form–meaning is a major part of architectural design: function is analogous to an idea or representation; form is analogous to an object or medium; and meaning is analogous to an interpretation and communication. One of the advantages of this model is that it can be used as a guide to explain the mutual and harmonious relationship among principles of architectural design, shown in Figure 1 [24].
The three domain principles involved in the idea and philosophy of architectural design are space, structure, and enclosure, in which space involves certain activities and functions, the structure consists of any technological applications, and enclosure is the real form of the building. Movement (motion) in space-time is the means through which the combination of the mentioned three principles is achieved [25]. Any emphasis on architectural design should be directed toward these three crucial principles of function, construction, and form; the form from this model depends on geometric order [26]. So, the summarized main principles of architectural design domain were form, function, and concept which illustrated in Figure 2.

1.1.2. Nature-Based Strategies of Architectural Design

A strategy is a plan created to accomplish a certain goal [27]. Design strategy is a systematic regulation of approaches to improve solutions and obtain particular goals [28]. Aspect can be viewed as a specific component or element of an environment, concept, issue, etc. [29]. The various aspects of nature have had an impact on architecture, with biology having been increasingly included in the activities of the design process [30]. The environmental design strategy aspects include consideration of how to encourage positive engagement with buildings and environments [31]. Nature-based strategies are interdisciplinary and complex, so architects should understand the process of framing natural inspirations in design, in addition to improving our knowledge, behaviors, and sustainable thinking by taking advantage of rich sources of nature [32].
Intelligence and the ability to save energy, be self-sustaining, and efficiently use resources are the most well-known strategies of natural systems [33,34]. The building orientation, shading devices, cost efficiency, and natural ventilation of buildings are the common aspects of a sustainable design approach. They related to computational inspirations; in more detail, using a passive solar design approach, the building will receive solar radiation in the winter while solar radiation is blocked during the summer by using shading devices [35]. The visual, conceptual, and computational inspirations are the three main contributions of nature to architectural design. These approaches of architectural design, which relate to nature, can be classified according to these three inspirations. The common approaches of nature-based inspirations in architectural design from the literature are compiled below:
1. 
The approaches of computational inspirations:
  • Bioclimatic architecture
When discussing the mechanisms of the interaction between the environment and architecture, we consider the interaction between a structure’s systems and its surroundings, particularly through its “microclimate”, e.g., ensuring thermal comfort levels for its occupants/users. Building designs that adhere to bioclimatic architecture enable higher levels of comfort by using appropriate architectural components and avoiding a total reliance on mechanical systems. The bioclimatic approach to architecture originated from the design principles seen in the large majority of regional and traditional structures around the world [36]. The first use of bioclimatic architecture in the form of a blueprint was used by Olgyay in 1950 to 1953 as nature-inspired strategies in architectural design [37].
  • Green architecture
A construction approach known as “green architecture” or “green design”, which has existed since the 1950s [38], seeks to reduce the negative effects on both the environment and human health. By using eco-friendly building materials and construction techniques, the “green” architect or designer seeks to protect the water, air, and soil [39,40].
  • Eco-design
Eco-design is a philosophy as well as a strategy of design. It entails incorporating regulations throughout a service’s or a product’s lifecycle. Predicting and reducing harmful environmental effects (from the manufacturing, use, and disposal of products) is the primary objective of eco-design. Eco-design also maintains a product’s quality level following its recommended use [41]. In addition, the ecological strategic approach takes into account the physical mechanisms, such as water and energy [42]. By maintaining or improving the material and social circumstances that affect people’s health and the environment over time without going beyond the ecological capacities that support them, we supposedly practice sustainability [43]. Thus, eco-design is a return to the sustainability concept, and it appeared in the first wave of the modern movement in 1962 [44].
  • Passive design
Passive design as another environmental strategy may be helpful in the advancement of sustainability in a healthy built environment since passive construction is an excellent approach to conserving energy for sustainability [45]. The first use of passive design was in the middle of the 1970s [46], and it makes use of breezes and sun while simultaneously blocking out unwanted heat and cold [47].
  • Sustainability
The building’s shape, positioning, construction method, and its relationship to the topography are of prime significance for environmentally conscious architectural codes in a building to result in sustainable architecture. Sustainable construction practices include minimizing maintenance costs using forethought, recycling, ensuring building energy efficiency, conserving water, and reducing material waste [48]. As a philosophical and comprehensive concept, it was used after the Brundtland report in 1987 [49].
  • Eco-efficiency
Eco-efficiency is the combination of the economy and environment, which are two dimensions of sustainability pillars; it is a type of sustainability system that includes socio-economic, eco-efficiency, and socio-ecological indicators [50], as shown in Figure 3.
  • Eco-friendly
The key philosophy of eco-friendly, “earth-friendly”, or “environmentally friendly” is “in danger of being lost. Healthier living for all the inhabitants and plants will be provided, and it will be equal to “going green” and “sustainability”. The most common characteristics of eco-friendly designs are the conservation of natural resources such as water and energy, reducing pollution of water, air, and soil, providing bio-diversity, respecting the ecosystem, reducing the negative impact on humans and the environment, and using recyclable materials [51].
  • Cradle to Cradle
Cradle to Cradle was developed in 1990 by William McDonough and Michael Braungart; it can be characterized as an invention that takes into account the quality of the materials, water, air, biodiversity, enhancement of natural sun rays, and the processes for reusing, recycling, and recovering [52].
  • Zero Energy Buildings
Buildings are crucial in creating plans for sustainable development since they have a significant impact on global energy and carbon emissions. Introduced in the early 2000s [53], the popularity of zero-energy buildings (ZEBs) has grown recently; several countries have chosen or are considering establishing ZEBs as their future building energy objectives to address difficulties with the depletion of the energy supply and the degradation of the environment. “ZEBs are buildings that produce and use an amount of energy that is exactly equal to their annual needs” [54].
2. 
The approaches of visual inspiration:
  • Geomorphic architecture
Buildings with geomorphic architecture are those that are inspired by nature, take their symbolism from a natural process, offer an experiential equivalent to that found in nature, fit into the natural contour of the land, and are combined with the landscape to form a single entity, or are partially or entirely earth-sheltered [55].
  • Zoomorphic design
Zoomorphic refers to human-made forms that resemble animals in shape or appearance. Since the beginning of time, artists have manufactured zoomorphic designs by incorporating non-animal forms with characteristics inspired by animalistic forms [56].
  • Anthropomorphic design
Anthropomorphism is the imitation of the human form as a symbol and metaphor. “The idea of the relationship of the body and architecture is an analogy that had been with us in one form or another forever” [57].
  • Biomorphic design
Biomorphic architecture refers to a direct conception that is affected by the organic forms of the human body, animals, and plants [58].
Biomorphology is the study of the structure and organization of living organisms and the organs, tissues, and cells that make them up. Structural morphology “refers to functional design in technology and functional anatomy in biology”, and micromorphology is the examination and characterization of the shape of small details, which is a genuine great resource for useful forms [59].
3. 
The approaches of conceptual inspirations:
  • Evolutionary architecture
This process progresses from abstraction, which includes concept and design derivation, using concretization, which concentrates on translating the concepts into design components and aspects to be combined into the overall product design. Similar to what was proposed, the framework approach alternates between divergence and convergence [60].
  • Metabolic architecture
The catabolic and anabolic processes of the body’s systems are described by metabolism, a movement that emerged and was inspired by biological metaphor and genetic design. It was a response to environmental disasters, human catastrophes, and natural disasters like earthquakes and tsunamis [61].
  • Parametric architecture
How the dimensions relate to one another is the definition of parametric design. It was later expanded to create parametric modeling, which is the representation of geometric relationships based on computational methods [62].
  • Regenerative architecture
Intelligent limits, incorporating entire system designs, intelligent structure, the community’s perspective, and the appropriate ecology are the most crucial regenerative architecture principles [63].
4. 
The combination:
  • Organic architecture
According to Louis Sullivan, the concept of “organic” in architecture refers to a broad approach that includes ideas like organisms, functions, growth, development, shape, and structure [64].
  • Bionic architecture
The key premise of bionic architecture is learning from nature for the sake of technology or understanding nature with the aid of technology. This means that bionic is a word that was created by combining “biology” and “technology” [65].
  • Biomimicry
Biomimicry is a strategy for sustainable development. In its broadest sense, it imitates or draws creative inspiration from nature’s systems, ideas, procedures, and functions to construct a long-lasting future [66].
  • Biophilic architecture
The core principle of biophilic architecture is the process of integrating nature’s characteristics into the built environment or giving life to buildings, known as biophilic design. It relates to human health, human well-being, physiological advantages, and performance enhancement [67]. The aesthetic preference for the complex geometric properties of natural scenes can also be found in the building’s artificial structures, which the parameters of natural scaling hierarchy and of either fractal graphics or of ornaments will increase the visual organization if the relationship between them was interesting it will positively impact on both physical and mental health [68]. Using the strategies of fractal fluency of nature in the building design will have a positive impact on aesthetic experience and physiological stress reduction of the observers, such as fractal floor patterns, fractal window shades, and fractal solar panels will have to improve salutogenesis [69]. Additionally, the utilization of urban space will be more attractive by using the integrations of multiple fractals, biophilia, and traditional architecture, and it affects the user experience by providing the aesthetic value of visual urban perception, which encourages walkability, natural navigation with positive effects on health and well-being [70].
Thus, computational inspirations, visual inspirations, conceptual inspirations, and a combination of them are used as nature-based strategies for systematic regulations of these approaches of architectural design related to nature. These nature-based strategies have a convergence relationship with the dominant principles of architecture: function, form, and concept. In a way that the computation of nature has been used in the functional principle of architecture, the visual appearance of nature has been used in the formal principle of architecture, the concept of nature has been used in the idea and conceptual principle of architecture, and it was the same for the combinations between them.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Data Analysis

Through reviewing the existing literature on the nature inspirations of design and the most common theories of architectural design principles, nature’s contributions to architectural design were identified. Nature-based strategies in architectural design were classified into four categories: form, function, concept, and combination. This study predicted a model of nature’s contributions to architectural design based on these four named categories. Moreover, this research was focused on a functional nature-based strategy for testing and validating the model. VOSviewer was used to construct a set of criteria and key aspects of a functional nature-based strategy involving nine approaches (bioclimatic architecture, green architecture, eco-design, passive design, sustainability, eco-efficient design, eco-friendly design, cradle-to-cradle, and zero energy buildings), whose aspects are related to environmental behaviors.
On 21 December 2021, 450 research articles from Scopus were accessed that are related to nine selected approaches; they were analyzed using the VOSviewer (https://www.vosviewer.com/ accessed on 13 December 2021), a program for visualizing and creating bibliometric networks. These networks can be built utilizing citations, co-citations, bibliographic coupling, or co-authorship relationships, and they can contain journals, researchers, or individual articles. To create and display co-occurrence networks of significant phrases taken from a body of scientific literature, VOSviewer additionally provides a text or keyword mining capability [71]. The data were scanned before entering into this software tool, including the title and the abstract of the articles. The search keywords were related to “aspects”, “environmental behaviors target or environmental strategies”, and “architectural design”. The outcome included the aspects of occurrences of these selected approaches.
The size of the circles is illustrated according to the number of occurrences of each aspect; the summarized aspects include temperature, thermal comfort, saving, energy performance, air, heat, envelop, light, insulation, energy demand, window, natural ventilation, orientation, cooling, opening, performance evaluation, waste, environmental pollution, natural resource, life cycle assessment, greenhouse gas emission, CO2 emission, carbon emission, fossil fuel, consumption, renewable energy, wind, and reuse. As shown in Figure 4.
The six categories shown as different colors were classified according to the user’s desire. These aspects were edited into 23 main aspects of architectural design targets because they contained repetitions, and some of them consisted of only one word. Simulation is not used for finding and rating systems, but it was the most common method of evaluating environmental behavioral targets in architecture [72]. In this research, because of the large number of approaches (9) and their aspects (23), a survey questionnaire was used to evaluate their contribution to Erbil City’s architectural design. Erbil (Hawler in Kurdish), the largest city in Iraqi Kurdistan, has been consistently inhabited for 6000 years [73]. Climate change and the problems of natural resource decline are the main reasons for its selection as the setting for the survey questionnaire.

2.2. Evaluation (Survey Method)

Between December 2022 and March 2023, a face-to-face survey questionnaire and online survey tool “Google Forms” in English and Kurdish were prepared for the focus groups of architects who have designed projects in Erbil City, as shown in third step in Figure 5. The data on the participants obtained from the Kurdistan Engineers Union showed that the number of architects in Erbil City was 2060 on 31 December 2022, and the number of architecture office buildings was 93, most of which were visited during the survey. From the survey, the architects could choose from the 23 aspects, the ones that they regarded as important in their designs, and rated the aspects according to a four-point Likert scale (most of the time, some of the time, seldom, and never). A total of 328 responses were obtained from this survey, and the responses from never to most of the time were assigned a value from zero to three. The data were imported into SPSS version 25 and Excel 2018, and the results were described as numbers, percentages, means, and standard deviations (SD). The t-test was used to compare means between the approaches of functional nature-based strategy in Erbil City’s architectural design.

3. Results

3.1. Results of Literature Analysis

3.1.1. Nature-Based Strategies in Architectural Design

Using the literature on nature-based strategies and the dominant architectural design principles, the structure of nature’s contributions to architectural design was illustrated in a diagram (Figure 6). The nature-based strategies, their approaches, and the aspects were divided into the four main architectural design domains (function, form, concept, and combinations of these principles).
From the diagram, bioclimatic architecture, green architecture, eco-design, passive design, sustainability, eco-efficient design, eco-friendly design, cradle-to-cradle, and zero-energy buildings were assigned as the functional nature-based strategy of architectural design because they are dependent on natural environmental behaviors. The approaches of zoomorphism, geomorphic, anthropomorphism, and biomorphism were assigned as the formal nature-based strategy of architectural design because they are dependent on the formal imitation of nature. In addition, the approaches of metabolic architecture, evolutionary design, parametric design, and regenerative architecture were assigned as the conceptual nature-based strategy of architectural design because their designs are based on conceptual inspiration from nature. The approaches of organic architecture, bionic architecture, biomimicry, and biophilic design were assigned as the combined nature-based strategy of architectural design because, in these approaches, nature contributed to more than one principle of design. The functional nature-based strategy of architectural design (Figure 7) was the main topic of this research.
After classifying the nature-based strategies according to the four architectural domains (function, form, concept, and combination), seven options of the models were extracted from this classification in Figure 8. which were arranged into point, linear, and comprehensive relationships between the nature inspirations and architectural principles. The models of nature inspirations include function, form, concept, function–form, function–concept, form–concept, and function–form–concept models.

3.1.2. Predicted Nature–Architecture Model

The general model of the relationship between nature and architecture, which is in the form of a pyramid, was divided into three levels of contributions: the first level (the base of the pyramid) contained the name of nature-based strategies, including functional strategy, formal strategy, conceptual strategy, and combined strategy; the approaches were in the second level, and the aspects were in the third level of the pyramid. All the levels were divided according to the principal contributions; the top of the pyramid was left for future development, as shown in Figure 9.

3.1.3. Functional Nature-Based Strategy of Architectural Design

According to literature on the functional nature-based strategy of architectural design the key philosophy of each approach was listed in Table 1. Which it revealed the main differences between them.
Next, the most common aspects of each approach are listed in Table 2, with the hierarchy of importance for each aspect appearing for each approach. For instance, for passive design, energy efficiency, heat gain, and heat loss are more significant than other aspects of the other approaches.
The scope of sustainability was larger than the scope of the other approaches in functional nature-based strategy when examining their main key philosophy and aspects, and it was located in the middle of the timeline of the development of these approaches, as shown in Figure 10. The other approaches are models of sustainability; thus, it is possible to argue that sustainability is the fundamental functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.

3.2. Results of Survey

The evaluation of the functional nature-based strategy’s contribution to architectural design was conducted via a questionnaire in Table 3. It was completed by 328 architects, a response rate of 63%. All the participants worked in Erbil City consultant offices, and the majority were male (81.10%), and 89.3% were architects who had a bachelor’s degree in architectural design. The responses were coded as 0, 1, 2, and 3, and the aspects were arranged as A1–A23. The mean of all aspects was 1.3348 with an SD of 0.37604, and they were ranked from 1 (1.91) to 23 (0.44).
The highest means were obtained for questions A13, A14, A8, and A11 (1.91, 1.87, 1.86, and 1.82). Meanwhile, the lowest means were obtained for questions A23, A22, A3, and A2 (0.44, 0.76, 0.80, and 0.82) as shown in Figure 11. At the same time, the highest deviations, measured in standard deviations (SD), were found in questions A8 (SD 1.09), A13 (SD 1.04), A18 (SD 1.03), and A7 with A10 (SD 0.99). The smallest SDs were obtained for questions A23 (SD 0.67), A1 (SD 0.71), A2 (SD 0.74), and A22 (SD 0.83).
The functional nature-based strategy of architectural design was coded as (Fun.), the nine selected approaches were coded as (App.No), and the aspects of the approaches were identified as sub-numbers for the approaches, as shown in Figure 12.
Due to the small differences between the approaches of green architecture, eco-design, eco-efficient design, and eco-friendly design, one mean was considered for these four approaches, and there were similarities between these aspects in the questionnaire, as shown in Table 4. These included the calculation of the impact of the building on its surroundings, including humans, the environment, the ecosystem, and the economy; their mean was 0.858. The lowest mean score was for zero-energy buildings (0.723), and the highest score was for the passive design (1.611); all the approaches of functional nature-based strategy had negative values on the t-test except the passive design (3.805). Therefore, there were highly significant differences between these approaches of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design, and their p-values were smaller than 0.05, as shown in Table 5.

4. Discussion

Starting from the selected aspects for the questionnaire design, the mean of these aspects ranged from relatively low (0.44) to very high (1.91); the lowest mean was “balance between the energy source and energy demand”, followed by “using passive systems” (0.76) and “using voltaic panels” (0.97). The highest mean score was for “natural ventilation”, which was interesting for the architects of Erbil City; the response rate selections were 11.0% never, 25.6% seldom, 25.3% some of the time, and 38.1% most of the time. It was the same result as the responses of the study by Kujundzic et al. (2023), in which the highest rate of relevance (68.75%) was obtained for natural ventilation [78]. To compare the rate of contributions between the approaches of functional nature-based strategy, a t-test was used. Only passive design had a positive value (+3.805), which means that nature contributes to Erbil City architecture via the passive design approach Figure 13. The difference between this study and the other related studies is that, in this study, the strategy was identified as the outcome with a group of evaluated approaches, whereas in the other studies, the researcher selected an approach before starting the research and without giving a critical reason.

5. Conclusions

For the sake of having environmentally friendly buildings, this study researched nature’s contributions to architectural design and predicted a model for structuring the relationship between nature and architecture. The model is based on four categories (function, form, concept, combination) of nature’s inspirations to the architectural design principles, with seven options (function, form, concept, function_form, function_concept, form_concept, and function_form_concept) using three levels (strategy, approach, and aspect). Most of the approaches of nature-based strategies of architectural design have their significant aspects and different models in nature. Among these approaches, the scope of sustainability was higher than the scope of the other approaches in a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
To test and validate the model, 23 aspects were evaluated, which were extracted from nine approaches to architectural design in Erbil City. The model of relationship between nature and architecture in Erbil City’s architectural design is based on the approach of passive design, as shown in Figure 14. The mean score of most of the aspects of passive design had the highest values, except for the use of voltaic panels, which had low values related to the lack of use of passive systems in Erbil City. The client requirements also have a negative impact on the low values of other aspects and approaches of functional nature-based strategy. The classifications of the approaches of architectural design into nature-based strategies will help designers use them in the four different architectural design principles; the complexity and interdisciplinarity of nature and its approaches will be less confusing. Additionally, placing these nature-based strategies of architectural design with their approaches and aspects in a predicted model will provide a clear picture for researchers to select proper approach for their research studies. Additionally, they can predict more levels smaller than the aspects of the relationship between nature and architecture
There is a group of functional nature-based strategies to solve the problems of the functional architectural principle. In addition, there is a group of formal nature-based strategies to solve the problems of the formal architectural principle and a group of conceptual nature-based strategies to solve the problems of the conceptual architectural principle, and the same applies to their combinations.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.H.A.; methodology, H.Q.R.; software, C.H.A.; validation, H.Q.R.; formal analysis, C.H.A.; investigation, H.Q.R.; resources, C.H.A.; data curation, C.H.A.; writing—original draft preparation, C.H.A. and H.Q.R.; writing—review and editing, C.H.A. and H.Q.R.; visualization, C.H.A.; supervision, H.Q.R.; project administration, H.Q.R.; funding acquisition, C.H.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article.

Acknowledgments

We appreciate everyone who helped with this research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

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Figure 1. The three main aspects of architectural design (function–form–meaning). Reproduced from Ref. [24].
Figure 1. The three main aspects of architectural design (function–form–meaning). Reproduced from Ref. [24].
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Figure 2. The summarized principles of architectural design based on the literature.
Figure 2. The summarized principles of architectural design based on the literature.
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Figure 3. The position of eco-efficiency in the three pillars of sustainability, adapted from Ref. [50].
Figure 3. The position of eco-efficiency in the three pillars of sustainability, adapted from Ref. [50].
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Figure 4. The “aspects” and “environmental behaviors target or environmental strategies” and “architectural design” as keywords in the VOSviewer analysis.
Figure 4. The “aspects” and “environmental behaviors target or environmental strategies” and “architectural design” as keywords in the VOSviewer analysis.
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Figure 5. The diagram of levels and steps of the research methodology.
Figure 5. The diagram of levels and steps of the research methodology.
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Figure 6. The diagram of nature-based strategies within architectural design principle.
Figure 6. The diagram of nature-based strategies within architectural design principle.
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Figure 7. The structure of aspects and the approaches of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
Figure 7. The structure of aspects and the approaches of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
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Figure 8. The models of nature-based strategies converge to the architectural design principles.
Figure 8. The models of nature-based strategies converge to the architectural design principles.
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Figure 9. The model of the relationship between nature and architectural design.
Figure 9. The model of the relationship between nature and architectural design.
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Figure 10. The timeline of the approaches of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
Figure 10. The timeline of the approaches of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
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Figure 11. The ranked means of the 23 aspects of the functional nature-based strategy based on survey responses.
Figure 11. The ranked means of the 23 aspects of the functional nature-based strategy based on survey responses.
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Figure 12. The symbols of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design, with their approaches and aspect numbers.
Figure 12. The symbols of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design, with their approaches and aspect numbers.
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Figure 13. The result of the evaluated functional nature-based strategies that contributed to the architectural design of Erbil City.
Figure 13. The result of the evaluated functional nature-based strategies that contributed to the architectural design of Erbil City.
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Figure 14. The model of the relationship between nature and architectural design in Erbil City identified using a functional nature-based strategy.
Figure 14. The model of the relationship between nature and architectural design in Erbil City identified using a functional nature-based strategy.
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Table 1. The key philosophies of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
Table 1. The key philosophies of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
No.ApproachKey Philosophy
1SustainabilityBalancing environment, social, and economic factors [74]
2Eco-efficient designEconomic and environmental maintenance [50]
3Passive designClimate and comfort (less heat loss and heat gain) [45]
4Bioclimatic architectureAdaption to the local climate [36]
5Green architectureReduce effects on the environment and human health [39,40]
6Zero energy buildingsSelf-sufficient buildings (energy efficiency and renewable energy generation) [54]
7Eco-friendly designEarth-friendly, environmentally friendly, in danger of being lost [51]
8Eco-designA design according to the ecological process [41]
9Cradle to Cradle Less negative impact (life cycle of product: manufacturing, distribution, usage, recovery, and reuse) [52]
Table 2. The aspects of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
Table 2. The aspects of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
ApproachAspect
Functional strategy:
1Bioclimatic ArchitectureImproved indoor environmental quality
Less energy consumption
Human comfort [75]
2Green architectureLess impact on human health
Less impact on the environment
Protect air, water, and soil
Efficient use of materials
Efficient use of energy
Indoor environmental quality
Less waste
Less pollution
Promote recycling [38]
3Eco-designLess impact on the environment and humans
Efficient energy consumption
Efficient water consumption
Less ground wastes
Less noise and vibrations
Less air pollution
Material efficiency [44]
4Passive designBuilding orientation
Window design
Thermal mass
Heat gain and heat loss
Natural ventilation
Thermal insulation [76]
Performance of acoustic insulation [13,14]
5SustainabilitySustainable site design
Efficient use of water
Energy efficiency
Improved indoor environment quality
Natural resources and materials [77]
6Eco-efficient DesignLess use of natural resources
Less waste
Less pollution [50]
7Eco-Friendly DesignLess impact on the environment
Using renewable energy
Developing biodiversity
Conservation of water and energy
Less pollution of water, air, and soil
Promote recycling [51]
8Cradle to cradleEconomic consideration of building construction
Efficient use of water, air, and materials
Developing biodiversity [52]
9Zero Energy BuildingsLess environment degradation
Less energy depletion
Energy efficiency
Using natural resources
Inclusion of landscape
Heat gain and heat loss reduction [54]
Table 3. The statistics of nature’s contributions in a functional strategy of architecture design (n = 328) and 23 aspects of the approaches of this strategy.
Table 3. The statistics of nature’s contributions in a functional strategy of architecture design (n = 328) and 23 aspects of the approaches of this strategy.
The Aspects of Functional StrategyNeverSeldomSome of the TimeMost of the TimeMean%RankSD
A1 Collecting all the information about the local climate3811.6%14343.6%14042.7%72.1%1.3545.1120.71
A2 Pollution (greenhouse gas emission, CO2 emissions) effects on humans, environment11836.0%16048.8%4212.8%82.4%0.8227.2200.74
A3 Recycling waste material during construction15246.3%10732.6%5215.9%175.2%0.8026.6210.89
A4 Recycling wastewater during the construction process13741.8%9930.2%7522.9%175.2%0.9130.5170.92
A5 Recycling waste material during the demolition process15447.0%8024.4%7823.8%164.9%0.8728.9190.94
A6 Recycling wastewater during construction13942.4%9829.9%7823.8%134.0%0.8929.8180.90
A7 Calculating heat gain and heat loss4513.7%14644.5%6419.5%7322.3%1.5050.1110.99
A8 Good orientation5416.5%5918.0%9428.7%12136.9%1.8662.031.09
A9 Shading device according to solar radiation4714.3%10832.9%10231.1%7121.6%1.6053.4100.98
A10 Window design according to solar radiation3811.6%9428.7%10331.4%9328.4%1.7758.870.99
A11 Thermal insulation materials206.1%9428.7%13942.4%7522.9%1.8260.740.85
A12 Calculations for thermal mass materials329.8%9228.0%12136.9%8325.3%1.7859.250.94
A13 Natural ventilation3611.0%8425.6%8325.3%12538.1%1.9163.511.04
A14 Exterior envelops of the building206.1%10130.8%11033.5%9729.6%1.8762.220.91
A15 Indoor air environment319.5%8626.2%13641.5%7522.9%1.7859.260.91
A16 Using local materials288.5%13340.5%9228.0%7522.9%1.6555.190.93
A17 Using renewal materials8525.9%13340.5%9127.7%195.8%1.1337.8150.87
A18 Using natural daylight3811.6%11434.8%7422.6%10231.1%1.7357.781.03
A19 Using voltaic panels10632.3%15246.3%4513.7%257.6%0.9732.2160.88
A20 Calculating cost reduction7222.0%12738.7%9529.0%3410.4%1.2842.6130.92
A21 Life cycle assessment of design9428.7%10130.8%10030.5%3310.1%1.2240.7140.97
A22 Using the passive system14544.2%13340.5%3410.4%164.9%0.7625.3220.83
A23 Balancing between the energy source and energy demand21164.3%9328.4%206.1%41.2%0.4414.7230.67
Question wording: A. Please rate if you have regarded these aspects during the design of your project regarding nature contributions. If these aspects were regarded from all the project’s designs, it was most of the time. From some of the project’s designs, it was some of the time. It was seldom, if the aspect rarely used in the design projects. Additionally, it was never as if they have never been included in any project design. The values are: most of the time = 3, some of the time = 2, seldom = 1, and never = 0.
Table 4. The symbols of the questions for each aspect of the functional nature-based strategy of architectural design are grouped into nine approaches and 23 aspects.
Table 4. The symbols of the questions for each aspect of the functional nature-based strategy of architectural design are grouped into nine approaches and 23 aspects.
No.ApproachSymbol of ApproachNumber of AspectsSymbol of AspectSD
1Bioclimatic architecture(Fun.App.1)3A1-A15-A220.71-0.91-0.83
2Green architecture(Fun.App.2)2A2-A3-A4-A5-A60.74-0.89-0.92-0.94-0.90
3Eco-design(Fun.App.3)2A2-A3-A4-A5-A60.74-0.89-0.92-0.94-0.90
4Passive design(Fun.App.4)2A7-A8-A9-A10-A11-A12-A13-A14-A15-A18-A19-A220.99-1.09-0.98-0.99-0.85-0.94-1.04-0.91-0.91-1.03-0.88-0.83
5Sustainability(Fun.App.5)5A3-A4-A5-A6-A8-A9-A10-A11-A12-A13-A14-A15-A16-A17-A18-A19-A220.89-0.92-0.94-0.90-1.09-0.98-0.99-0.85-0.94-1.04-0.91-0.91-0.93-0.87-1.03-0.88-0.83
6Eco-efficient design(Fun.App.6)2A2-A3-A4-A5-A60.74-0.89-0.92-0.94-0.90
7Eco-friendly design(Fun.App.7)2A2-A3-A4-A5-A60.74-0.89-0.92-0.94-0.90
8Cradle to cradle(Fun.App.8)1A20-A210.92-0.97
9Zero energy buildings(Fun.App.9)2A19-A22-A230.88-0.83-0.67
Table 5. The statistical calculations of means of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
Table 5. The statistical calculations of means of a functional nature-based strategy of architectural design.
Mean NameApproachSymbol nMean ValueTheoretical MeanStd. Deviationt-Testp-ValueSig.
Mean1Bioclimatic architecture(Fun.App.1)3281.2971.5000.485−7.5910.000HS
Mean2Green architecture
Eco-design
Eco-efficient design
Eco-friendly design		(Fun.App.2)
(Fun.App.3)
(Fun.App.6)
(Fun.App.7)		3280.8581.5000.642−18.1020.000HS
Mean3Passive design(Fun.App.4)3281.6111.5000.5283.8050.000HS
Mean4Sustainability(Fun.App.5)3281.4171.5000.411−3.6600.000HS
Mean5Cradle to cradle(Fun.App.8)3280.9891.5000.755−12.2560.000HS
Mean6Zero energy buildings(Fun.App.9)3280.7231.5000.659−21.3680.000HS
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Ahmed, C.H.; Rasul, H.Q. Natural and Architectural Convergence: A Model of Nature-Based Strategies in the Architectural Design Domain. Buildings 2023, 13, 2015. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13082015

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Ahmed CH, Rasul HQ. Natural and Architectural Convergence: A Model of Nature-Based Strategies in the Architectural Design Domain. Buildings. 2023; 13(8):2015. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13082015

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Ahmed, Chra Hunar, and Hoshyar Qadir Rasul. 2023. "Natural and Architectural Convergence: A Model of Nature-Based Strategies in the Architectural Design Domain" Buildings 13, no. 8: 2015. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13082015

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