This section presents the results of the various techniques applied in this work. Specifically, a detailed discussion of the performance of the various predictive models has been presented together with the optimisation outcomes.
3.1. Predictive Model Performance
To assess the performance of the various predictive models,
r, RMSE, MAPE, and VAF have been used as performance indicators with the results visualised in
Figure 9. From
Figure 9, an
indicator which gives an idea of the linear relationship between true and predicted rougher copper-recovery values was determined to be 0.87, 0.99, 0.87, 0.53, and 0.97 for SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF, respectively, when the trained models were fitted with the training data set. When the trained models were fitted with the validation data set, SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF recorded
values of 0.85, 0.97, 0.86, 0.50, and 0.95, respectively. With regard to fitting the trained models with the testing data set, 0.86, 0.97, 0.86, 0.51, and 0.95 were the
values recorded by SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF, respectively. Despite the very large testing data, compared with the training and validation data sets, the observed model performance values for the testing were close to the validation outcome. The highest
values obtained by the GPR-matern 3/2 model in each instance show quantitatively the strength of the linear relationship between true and predicted rougher copper-recovery values when the GPR-matern 3/2 model was used. This result further indicates the uniqueness of the predictive strength of the GPR-matern 3/2 model.
In terms of error statistics, RMSE and MAPE indicators were used in this work. RMSE values of 0.91, 0.01, 0.88, 1.52, and 0.35 were recorded by SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF, respectively, when the trained models were fitted with the training data set. When the trained models were fitted with the validation data set, SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF recorded RMSE values of 0.96, 0.41, 0.93, 1.56, and 0.60, respectively. Furthermore, 0.93, 0.41, 0.92, 1.54, and 0.59 were the RMSE values that were recorded by SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF, respectively, when the trained models were fitted with the testing data set. The lowest RMSE values obtained by the GPR-matern 3/2 model in each instance is a clear indication that GPR-matern 3/2 predicted rougher copper-recovery values are in better agreement with true rougher recovery values. From the MAPE results shown in
Figure 5, it can be stated that the unexplained variability in true and predicted rougher copper-recovery values was 0.65%, 0.01%, 0.71%, 1.32%, and 0.23% for SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF, respectively, when fitted with the training data set. Fitting the trained models with the validation data set resulted in MAPE values of 0.69%, 0.24%, 0.74%, 1.34%, and 0.40% for SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF, respectively. Their corresponding testing data set fitting had MAPE values of 0.68%, 0.24%, 0.74%, 1.32%, and 0.39%. Once again, it is obvious that the GPR-matern 3/2 model was the best performing model as far as the MAPE indicator is concerned.
A VAF indicator was also used to verify the correctness of the models and how well they could make predictions. SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF trained models recorded VAF values of 74.72%, 99.99%, 76.24%, 26.54%, and 96.14%, respectively, when fitted with the training data set. Fitting with the validation data set resulted in VAF values of 71.72%, 94.70%, 73.50%, 24.50%, and 88.89% for SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF trained models, respectively. For fitting done with the testing data set, SVM-Gaussian, GPR-matern 3/2, ANN, LR, and RF trained models recorded VAF values of 74.87%, 94.65%, 73.32%, 25.62%, and 89.47%, respectively. These results indicate that the GPR-matern 3/2 model which outperformed SVM-Gaussian, ANN, LR, and RF can explain about 99.99%, 94.70%, and 94.65% of the potential variance in the predicted rougher copper-recovery values from the training, validation, and testing data sets, respectively.
It can clearly be seen that the GPR-matern 3/2 model produced the most precise copper-recovery prediction as compared to SVM-Gaussian, ANN, LR, and RF. The outstanding performance of the GPR-matern 3/2 model could be attributed to its intrinsic ability to add a prior knowledge and specification about the shape of the model by learning the hyperparameters which are relational to the training, validation, and testing data sets. This helps to capture the uncertainties in the data using the noise variance hyperparameter during the model formulation stage. The next best model from
Figure 9 is the RF model. The performance of the RF model could be linked to the fact that it is an ensemble learner which builds multiple predictor trees and finds the average prediction value in solving a problem. This ensemble technique in RF makes it better than most standalone predictive models. Again, from
Figure 9, it is obvious that SVM-Gaussian and ANN models had a similar performance, which was below the performance of both the GPR-matern 3/2 and RF models. This is mainly because both SVM-Gaussian and ANN models had a very similar learning ability during the training phase, as well as a similar generalisation capability during the validation and testing phases. The poor performance of the LR model could be attributed to its inability to capture the complex nonlinear relationship between rougher flotation variables and rougher copper recovery. This is because the algorithm is quite potent in capturing linear relationships, which is contrary to the data set used in this work. For brevity, parity plots visualising the distribution of true and predicted copper-recovery values for all the investigated models using the testing data set are shown in
Figure 10. It can be seen that the GPR-matern 3/2 model had the minimum spread of true and predicted copper-recovery values along its linear fit, confirming its unique predictive performance over the other investigated models (SVM-Gaussian, ANN, LR, and RF). This was followed closely by the RF model with SVM-Gaussian and ANN having a similar spread below that of the GPR-matern 3/2 and RF models. With the highest performance of GPR-matern 3/2, it was extracted for the optimisation studies.
3.2. Selection of Best Optimisation Solution
Four sets of solutions were found for the rougher flotation variables, as shown in
Table 5. Furthermore, visualisations of the best objective function value at each iteration or generation for the various optimisation algorithms have also been presented in
Figure 11.
From
Table 5, it can be seen that all the optimisation algorithms found solutions within the specified constrained bounds of the individual rougher flotation variables, indicating their correctness. It can further be observed from
Table 5 that the predicted copper-recovery objective function values were in line with the expected copper recovery (
93%). However, most of the solutions found for the various flotation variables showed subtle differences, making it dicey to easily select the best set of solutions. As such, a hypothetical analysis of the optimisation results was carried out considering a 24 h period.
For this hypothetical analysis, a focus was placed on feed grade, throughput, feed particle size, and reagent dosages (xanthate and frother) for economic and eco-friendly mineral separation, as shown in
Table 6. A copper price of AUD6500 per tonne, xanthate and frother cost of AUD1.20 per litre and AUD1.30 per litre, respectively, were also assumed in this analysis.
The results showed a throughput of 15,312.48 t, 12,798.00 t, 12,819.36 t, and 12,869.76 t was recorded for the SA optimisation algorithm, PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA, respectively, in 24 h (
Table 6). The high throughput value recorded by the SA optimisation algorithm is due to its relatively coarse grind size of 82.8% passing 75 μm as compared to the PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA which all had a feed particle size value around 84% passing 75 μm. In as much as no data are presented on mill energy consumption in this work, it is obvious that applying the feed particle size solution found by the SA optimisation algorithm will conserve mill energy as compared to the feed particle size solutions found by the PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA. Applying the respective feed grades, predicted copper recovery, and total throughput of material treated resulted in 371.46 t, 313.77 t, 314.29 t, and 319.19 t of copper for the SA optimisation algorithm, PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA, respectively, in 24 h. The monetisation of this recovered rougher copper was AUD2,414,490.00, AUD2,039,505.00, AUD2,042,885.00, and AUD2,074,735.00, respectively, for the SA optimisation algorithm, PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA.
In terms of reagent consumption, as shown in
Table 6, solutions found by the SA optimisation algorithm, PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA resulted in a total xanthate consumption of 133,387.20 mL, 103,478.40 mL, 103,507.20 mL, and 103,665.60 mL, respectively, in 24 h. These values resulted in a total xanthate cost of AUD160.06, AUD124.17, AUD124.20, and AUD124.40, respectively, for the SA optimisation algorithm, PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA. For frother consumption in the 24 h period, a total of 260,294.40 mL, 310,219.20 mL, 310,867.20 mL, and 309,571.20 mL was recorded by the SA optimisation algorithm, PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA, respectively. The cost for this frother consumption was estimated to be AUD338.38 for the SA optimisation algorithm, AUD403.28 for the PSO algorithm, AUD404.13 for the SO algorithm, and AUD402.44 for GA.
To complete the hypothetical analysis, the net gain at the end of the 24 h and total reagent cost for the same period were computed. The values realised were AUD2,413,991.56, AUD2,038,977.55, AUD2,042,885.00, and AUD2,074,735.00, respectively, for the SA optimisation algorithm, PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA. These results indicate that the SA optimisation algorithm had a net gain percentage of 15.5%, 15.40%, and 14.07% over the PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA, respectively.
In all the main benchmarks (overall throughput, feed particle size, xanthate and frother consumption, and net gain) used in this analysis, it is evident that the SA optimisation algorithm outperforms the other optimisation algorithms, except for xanthate consumption where the PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA did marginally better than the SA optimisation algorithm, as shown in
Table 6. Regardless of this, the overall net gain applying solution found by the SA optimisation algorithm is enough to compensate for the cost of xanthate consumed. Based on this, the SA optimisation algorithm was chosen to provide the best set of solutions for the maximisation of copper recovery even though it had the minimum predicted copper objective function value of 94.76% as against the PSO algorithm, SO algorithm, and GA which had objective function values
95%.