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Article

Temporal Changes in Water Quality with Increasing Ambient Temperatures Affect the Distribution and Relative Abundance of 10 Species of Balitorid Fishes in Small Streams of Eastern Thailand

by
Sampan Tongnunui
1,*,
F. W. H. Beamish
2,3,
Treerat Sooksawat
4,5,*,
Amnuay Wattanakornsiri
6,
Charoonroj Chotwiwatthanakun
7,
Weerayuth Supiwong
8,
Prasarn Intacharoen
9 and
Chanyut Sudtongkong
10
1
Conservation Biology, Mahidol University, Kanchanaburi Campus, Lum Sum, Sai York, Kanchanaburi 71150, Thailand
2
Environmental Science Program, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Bangsean, Chonburi 20131, Thailand
3
Department of Zoology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G2W1, Canada
4
Visiting Professor Program, Conservation Biology, Mahidol University, Kanchanaburi Campus, Lum Sum, Sai York, Kanchanaburi 71150, Thailand
5
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand
6
Department of Agriculture and Environment, Faculty of Science and Technology, Surindra Rajabhat University, Mueang, Surin 32000, Thailand
7
Nakhonsawan Campus, Mahidol University, Nakhonsawan 60130, Thailand
8
Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Khon Kaen University, Nong Khai Campus, Mueang, Nong Khai 43000, Thailand
9
Department of Aquatic Science, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Bangsean, Chonburi 20131, Thailand
10
Department of Marine Science and Environment, Faculty of Science and Fisheries Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Trang Campus, Sikao, Trang 92150, Thailand
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2023, 15(15), 2791; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152791
Submission received: 31 May 2023 / Revised: 24 July 2023 / Accepted: 27 July 2023 / Published: 1 August 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Human Activities and Climate Change on Freshwater Fish, Volume II)
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Abstract

:
Stream degradation increases with high anthropogenic activity and climate variability, while declines occur in biodiversity. However, few studies have been undertaken on tropical waterways, a major impediment to biodiversity conservation. The present study was conducted on 95 relatively pristine small streams in Eastern Thailand with 10 reasonably uncommon species of balitorid fishes. Measurements were made of 21 physical and chemical factors and the substrate particle size. Stepwise regression identified the direct importance of substrate particle size and nitrate on the species’ richness of balitorids, whereas its abundance was negatively related with iron concentrations. A Canonical Correspondence Analysis identified three fish groups: the 1st group was negatively correlated with ammonia and positively correlated with dissolved silica, the 2nd group was positively correlated with substrate particle size and negatively correlated with stream ambient temperature and ammonia concentration, and the 3rd group was negatively correlated with low dissolved silica, respectively. The results of this study may indicate the vulnerability of balitorids under climate warming and anthropogenic pressure that alter the water physicochemical factors and river degradation including the substrate type. Thus, a conservation framework should be provided regarding the limits for water temperature, ammonia, and iron in Thailand’s Water Quality Criteria to better protect its freshwater ecosystem. Balitorid is a potential bioindicator for evaluating the river temperature effect in combination with ammonia nutrient stressors as long as the way-of-life habits of the species are taken into account.

1. Introduction

River basins in Thailand, consisting of 25 main- and 254 sub-watersheds [1], provide diverse habitats, high species richness and abundance. Water quality is an important factor, which is related to the ecological status in freshwater bodies and biodiversity. The trophic status of some main rivers in six regions in Thailand have been mostly classified as clean–moderate water quality (oligotrophic–mesotrophic status) during all three seasons in 2008 to 2009 [2]. In the present day, the industrial revolution increased effluent and nutrient load in the environment, accelerating atmospheric greenhouse gas releases, climate changes, increases in ambient temperature, and aquatic habitat loss. The average of the annual ambient temperature over Thailand trends shows an increase of 0.62 °C per decade during the years 2020–2029 [3], and the higher ambient temperature can alter the water temperature in aquatic ecosystems.
Ambient temperature influences many aquatic activities including chemical compositions in river and stream bodies. Higher temperatures and nutrient loads, the latter derived from the anthropogenic activities, promote higher nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in the rivers [4,5,6], resulting in an increase in eutrophic vulnerability and a reduction in ambient levels of dissolved silica and dissolved oxygen (DO) [7,8] and ultimately a myriad of interacting toxicants such as ammonia [9]. Many aquatic organisms including fishes, therefore, are more sensitive to ammonia when their habitats have higher river temperatures with a low DO.
Complex interactions further act to alter and destroy aquatic environments (e.g., river temperature, nutrient load, chemical concentration, water volume, and flow adjustment) and their biota, especially sensitive species [10,11,12]. As the interactions between river temperatures and aquatic activities, a little fluctuation in ambient temperature and toxicant concentration can severely impact the physiological response of fish. Since sensitive species of fish can be poorly adapted to ecological variation, they are at risk when confronted by warmer river temperatures and habitat degradations.
Balitorid loaches (balitoridae) are widely distributed across Eurasia including in Thailand [13]. However, these species are one of the least studied groups of freshwater fishes, especially in their ecology [14], although they have been studied in regard to husbandry for tropical fish hobbyists. The study of balitorid loaches was first reported by Smith [15], and subsequently, most studies with a specific emphasis on species identification and classification were performed [16]. As recently as a decade ago, many balitorid species in Thailand have been revised and described as new species [17,18,19,20,21,22,23]. In contrast, the ecological studies of Thai balitorids are limited in the central regions, and to our best knowledge, there are only two publications in balitoridae distribution and their habitats [24,25]. Fish diet and feeding behavior have been previously reported on two species of balitorid fish, Homalopteroides smithi and Schistura kohchangensis [26,27,28], and there is no literature published on the reproduction of any balitorid fish in Thailand. Owing to the rare knowledge about the fish ecology and biology of balitorids [29], it is critical to document their responses to ecological disturbance and impacts of climate change. Thus, a concern for the future of the river’s balitorid diversity across Thailand’s eastern river basin, particularly in an area with intense anthropogenic activities, is considered as a highly relevant priority.
In the present study, we monitored balitorid species richness, relative abundance, distribution, and environmental habitat, associated with the riverine ecosystem. We also investigated relationships among environmental variables as well as species richness and relative abundance in streams or small rivers in Eastern Thailand to enhance an understanding of the impacts from climate warming and anthropogenic activities.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Physicochemical Measurement

Temporal occurrences and relative abundance of balitorid fishes were measured along with a number of physiochemical variables at 95 sites in the Chonburi, Rayong, Nakon Nayok, Chantaburi, and Trat provinces, Eastern Thailand (Figure 1a–e). Habitats at more than half of the sites were close to a national park and considered as relatively pristine areas which were the sampling sites (st), coded 01–50, 56, 68, and 92–93, respectively. Other sites, coded 51–55, 57–67, 69–91, and 95, were near small villages and modest agricultural ventures and did not bear negative signs of anthropogenic activity, which were considered not to be significantly negatively impacted at each site, and physiochemical and environmental variables were measured during daylight hours (08.00–10.00) from March 2015 to May 2022.
At each site, the river depth (±1 cm), width (±0.1 m), and water flow (±1 cm/s) were measured and used to calculate discharge (l/s) as the product of the mean depth, width and water flow. Depth and water speed were the averages of 3–5 measurements made at approximately equal intervals across a transect located at about mid-length of a site. Water speed was measured with a calibrated propeller current meter (Ott, model 2C, Kempten, Germany) at approximately mid-depth that was recorded as the vertical average. The canopy was calculated visually as the percentage of sky impaired by foliage directly above a river site with 100% representing complete cover. Ambient dissolved oxygen, river temperature, pH, and conductivity were measured with regularly calibrated probes (YSI, models pro 2010, Yellow Springs, OH, USA).
Additionally, concentrations of ammonia (NH3/L), nitrite (NO−2/L), nitrate (NO3/L), total iron (Fe/L), silica (SiO2/L), and phosphate (PO43−/L) were measured with a multiparameter photometer (Hanna, model HI83208); turbidity (NTU) and water color were measured by a turbidimeter (model 10447 EUTECH TN-100) and a color meter (Hanna, model 96727); alkalinity (as CaCO3, pH 4.5) was measured using the sulfuric acid titration method; and the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) was determined with a BOD system and BOD sensor (VELP® Scientifica, Usmate, Italy), as described in APHA [30]. All parameters were measured in triplicate at each site. Elevation was measured with a calibrated global positioning meter (±5 m, Garmin model 60CSx, Olathe, KS, USA). The substrate particle size at each sampling site was collected with a hand-held acrylic corer (5 cm inner diameter) at a depth of 10 ± 3 cm. Substrate particles on the surface larger than the corer diameter were removed first but included in the sample. Samples were air-dried and sieved to determine the size distribution by weight. Seven particle size classes were adopted from the Wentworth scale [31] and coded from one to seven categories—the smallest: <0.5 mm (medium sand to silt), 0.51–3 mm (fine gravel to coarse sand), 3.1–5 mm (medium to fine gravel), 5.1–60 mm (large pebble to coarse gravel), 60.1–150 mm (large cobble to large pebble), and >150 mm (boulder to large cobble). The substrate particle size at a few sites was solid or almost solid bedrock, coded as 7 [32,33].

2.2. Fish Samples, Species Richness, and Relative Abundance

Balitorids were collected by kick and passive sampling techniques using two seines to capture fish in an area of approximately 100 m2 [34]. At each site, the fish captured in 3–5 passes were used to estimate a relative abundance using the maximum likelihood technique [15] and were arithmetically adjusted to an area of 100 m2. All individuals were identified at the species level, enumerated, and released downstream from their capture site to avoid fish re-capturing. Since some individuals could not be identified in the field, they were first overdosed in clove oil and were preserved in 10% formalin for later identification to the species using a stereo microscope according to the taxonomic keys based on the Catalog of Fish, California [35] and a number of other publication sources [16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,36,37,38,39,40,41].
Relative abundances of balitorid loach species were calculated by the maximum likelihood technique [24,25,34] that used an iterative process for estimating the abundance and capture probability from the removal method. For some small fish species not amenable to the maximum likelihood technique, and a conversion factor applied to adjust numbers was calculated from the estimated abundance of all captured fish divided by the total number of fish actually captured at the same site [33]. The ethical principles and guidelines for the use and care of animals in science, ID license 28/2560, was approved by the Ethics Committee at the Faculty of Science, Burapha University. For the fish investigation during 2022–2023, the animal care and use license was U1-07864–2561, protocol NO. F03-65-019, approved by Mahidol University, Thailand.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

Stepwise multiple linear regression analysis (MLR, SPSS 17.5) was applied to examine relationships between species richness, fish abundance, and all habitat parameters [42]. All environmental variables, except pH, were log10 (x + 1), transformed to normalize the distribution of values. Associations among fish species, their abundances, and physicochemical variables were analyzed by Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) (PC–ORD program version 4.17, Corvallis, OR, USA) [43]. In preparation for multiple linear regression and ordination analysis, some adjustments were made to the data representation for SPSS and the PC–ORD statistical analysis program when no fish was captured at some sites. Since balitorids were not found in 46 of the sampled sites, which in the case of Lepidocephalicthys hasselti, a representative common species was added for a dummy variable of 0.0001 fish/100 m2 and it was added to all sampling sites beforehand to statistically analyze the data for significantly increasing the variability of the data [32,44,45,46,47]. All possible predictors in the models were tested for multi-collinearity.

3. Results

3.1. Environmental Data, Species Richness and Abundance of Balitorids

Environmental variables varied by sampled streams, the geometric mean, and standard deviation of all 95 sampling sites are presented below (Table 1 and Figure 2a–f). We found 10 species of balitorids among the 95 sites with individual site variations of 0 to 4 species/100 m2 and a geometric site mean of 0.51 ± 1.3 species/100 m2. A stepwise regression model incorporating all environmental variables (n = 21) indicated species richness was highly related to substrate size and nitrate concentration (Equation (1)):
Log (S + 1) = −0.151 + 0.394 Log (ST coded + 1) + 0.101 Log (N + 1)
where S represents species richness, adjusted to an area of 100 m2; ST, represents substrate size; and N, represents nitrate (mg/L). Variables retained in the equation had significant values at p ≤ 0.05 and R2 = 0.45 (Figure 3a).
The total abundance of balitorids was 438.0 individuals/100 m2, and the total relative fish abundance adjusted to a site area of 100 m2 ranged from 0 to 87.8 individuals/100 m2 with a geometric mean of 4.6 ± 3.1 individuals/100 m2. According to the regression model, iron concentration was the only significant predictive variable of balitorid abundance in the eastern streams. The reverse correlation between the total relative abundance and iron is represented by Equation (2):
Log (Ab + 1) = 0.514 − 0.689 Log (Fe + 1)
where Ab is the total fish abundance measured in fish/100 m2 and Fe is iron concentration (mg/L). The regression’s F-value is 5.28 (1,94 df, p ≤ 0.05) and R2 = 0.23 (Figure 3b).
The most abundant balitorid species, L. hasselti, was found in 22.1% of the eastern streams with the highest abundance of 2.0 ± 2.36 individuals/100 m2. The other dominant species in the streams, Schistura kohchangensis, Paracanthocobitis zonalternans, and Nemacheilus masyae, had a frequency of occurrence at 5.2% with abundances of 1.15 ± 1.88, 0.86 ± 1.68, and 0.1 ± 1.20 individuals/100 m2, respectively (Table 2 and Figure 4).

3.2. CCA Analysis of Balitorid Distribution, Abundance and Physicochemical Variables in Water

Individual balitorid species were significantly related with the CCA analysis for four physicochemical variables (Figure 5). Each axis explains a statistically significant proportion of the species environment of eigenvalue correlation with the first and second axes at 0.968 with 16.9% and 0.275 with 4.8% of the % of variance and 5.1 of total variance, respectively. The first axis presents a positive gradient of ammonia concentration but shows a negative gradient of substrate size and dissolved silica. The second axis presents a positive gradient of ammonia and dissolved silica concentrations but is negatively related to substratum.
Balitorid species distribution and abundance were clearly associated with four environmental parameters. The CCA analysis indicated that the 10 species of loaches were clearly negatively related to ammonia, and they were absent when relatively high concentrations occurred. Loaches were clearly distributed within three groups with respect to the significant habitat characteristics, supported by a hierarchical analysis at a Sorensen distance of an 85.0% similarity index. The species in the 1st group was composed of one common species, L. hasselti, with a high abundance and occurrence frequency, associated with high silica concentration, which is mostly found in habitats with a high proportion of fine particles. The 2nd group consisted of six species, Nemacheilus platiceps, N. masyae, Homalopteroides smithi, Homaloptera orthogoniata, Lepidocephalichthys berdmorei, and S. kohchangensis, all highly positively correlated with substratum size, such as cobble and bolder in contrast to fine particles such as clay which they avoided. The group 2 species were largely absent wherever ammonia was detected. The 3rd group consisted of three species, Acanthopsis rungthipae, A. cf. rungthipae, and P. zonalternan, that were negatively correlated with dissolved silica, respectively.

4. Discussion

Riverine habitats provide a selection of environmental characteristics [48]. In this study, balitorid species richness was positively related with substrate sizes. The highest balitorid diversity was found where water velocity was high and the streambed contains a high proportion of large particles [49,50,51], consistent with the dynamics of their pectoral and pelvic fin design and movement [22,41]. L. hasselti, the most widely distributed in the gravel to coarse sand and the most abundant species in this study, is morphologically adapted for a sand-dwelling life style, particularly predator escape [24,25]. Hence, we suggest that the distribution of L. hasselti appears to be more restricted to the sand-substratum of rivers. Other balitorid species found at the sampling sites dominated by larger particles and gravel—boulders—including H. smithi, H. orthogoniata, N. masyae, N. platiceps, S. kohchangensis, and L. berdmorei have a sub-terminal mouth and laterally extended pectoral and pelvic fins that likely serve as adhesive structures further facilitating station holding [25,52] and grazing behaviors on rocky substrates [27,28,53].
Nitrate concentration is positively associated with balitorid diversity, as a diet nutrient used by phytoplankton and algae that were fed by meiofauna and macroinvertebrate on which balitorids feed [26,54]. A nitrate (not exceed to 10 mg/L) to ammonia ratio of 25:1 is one of the important factors indicating healthy freshwater, which encourages primary production in streams, especially algae. With declines in nitrate, algal composition may change with primary production impaired [55]. The severe land disturbance from agriculture and logging results in increased nitrate concentration. A high nitrate concentration stimulates the over production of phytoplankton, algae, and hydrophytes which ruin the equilibrium in freshwater ecosystems. The nitrate is then reduced to ammonia and depleted, reflecting polluted or unhealthy streams containing a low ratio of nitrate to ammonia at 1:1. Thus, the occurrence of balitorids where the stream was high in nitrate (>5.0 mg/L) may comparatively relate to the diversity of food sources and healthy streams. Additionally, the sub-terminal mouth shape of balitorids supports the grazing behavior of feeding on diatom and aquatic benthic that attach on medium to large substrate sizes [27,28,53].
Most balitorid species in the streams in Eastern Thailand were strongly correlated with substrate size and correlated weakly with dissolved silica. As the result in the CCA analysis presented in this study, in the Eastern River basin, the dissolved silica is a highly influential variable associated with L. hasselti’s distribution. In some of Thailand’s main river basins, balitorid diversity was positively related to and provided the highest high silica concentration of around 10–30 mg SiO2/1 [25]. Dissolution of silica in water increases inversely with particle size factors, since the dissolution rate associated with a variety of external (e.g., temperature and inflow velocity) and internal (e.g., mineralogy, grain size, porosity, and structures) factors [56]. In contrast, the increase in the dissolution rate of silica at substrate boundaries is related to the decreasing particle size [56]. In this study, L. hasselti was distributed mostly in habitats dominated by small clay-sand sediment particles from which silica dissolved. Silica is used in diatom morphology and algae [57] as well as the diet of macroinvertebrates and balitorids [58]. As a balitorid normally feeds on benthic macroinvertebrates, its distribution may be therefore associated with macroinvertebrate abundances, including aquatic insects which feed on microphytoplankton [26,27,28] associated with dissolved silica in streams.
Disturbance from anthropogenic activity can be indicated by contamination of the pollutants leading to the reduction in fish diversity. The water in the heavily disturbed sites of this study was comparatively low in dissolved silica, which may be reflected in the pollution in the rivers containing the heavy metal (e.g., iron) that can co-precipitate with dissolved silica. A negative correlation of balitorid abundance was observed, which is in accordance with a gradually increasing iron concentration that is highly toxic for fish in relation to river temperature, pH, and DO [59,60,61]. A high river temperature decreases the solubility of gases, especially the DO concentration. A low DO and low pH due to high river temperatures and pollution increase the probability of directly adverse effects of ferrous compounds on fish populations. Ferrous, a soluble form of iron, may be oxidized into insoluble ferric compounds that cover gill lamellae surface and inhibit respiration processes [62]. However, the physiological adaptation of fish to tolerate the toxicity of heavy metals is an essential process to metabolize the heavy metal depending on the expression of the metallothionein protein to allow for their survival [63], but there was no evidence to indicate how the balitorids are adaptive.
In stream ecology, physicochemical factors fluctuate in space and time, with complex interactions associated with fish community structures [64,65]. As fish distribution depends on species-specific environmental factors [66,67], the fish community structure varies with the habitat quality [68,69]. Alteration in water physicochemical properties [24] may change both the abundance and species richness of fish. Although fish can adapt their physiological and phenotypic responses to physicochemical change, adaptations are limited. Under high anthropogenic activity and climate change scenarios, the species with limited adaptive responses are vulnerable to temperature effects and habitat alterations [70,71,72]. In this study, the CCA analysis demonstrated how balitorids responded to environmental factors in the eastern rivers with increased disturbance. Most balitorids were negatively associated with high ammonia and river temperature but are positively related with dissolved silica. In the eastern rivers, balitorids distributed in 34 sites (37.8%) with water that is low in ammonia (0.47 ± 1.5 mg/L), high in dissolved silica (18.8 ± 2.5 mg/L), and with a river temperature ranging from 23.0 to 27.5 °C, but the distribution was limited with water that is high in ammonia (409.2 ± 12.0 mg/L), low in dissolved silica (8.3 ± 3.1 mg/L), and with a river temperature ranging from 24.2 to 28.9 °C [25,32]. However, Beamish et al. [24] reported ammonia was not a significant factor in CCA analysis; they also found that balitorids were not observed at >0.4 mg/L NH3 and seldom at >0.05 mg/L NH3 (pH7.0 ± 0.5), even in the presence of comparatively high ambient oxygen. Disturbances due to anthropogenic activities, e.g., industrial and municipal effluents, agriculture, and shrimp farming, around study sites can increase the stream’s ammonia concentration to >400 mg/L by the excessive organic matter loading. The present study found that P. zonalternans and A. rungthipae were tolerant to environmental ammonia concentrations of >0.002 and <0.5 mg/L in the Eastern River basins. Similarly, Tongnunui and Beamish [32] found that these species were ammonia tolerant with the mechanisms to excrete and detoxify ammonia. Tsui et al. [73] reported that the balitorid Misgurnus anguillicaudatus was able to excrete ammonia by volatilization from its skin and gut during high ammonia exposure. The conversion of ammonia into less toxic nitrogenous compounds is an important but variable mechanism in fish species [74]. Generally, chronic exposure to critical sublethal ammonia concentrations impairs the performance, growth, immunity, oxidative status, and reproductive ability of fish [75].
Elevated temperatures of Eastern Thailand streams may increase the cause of ammonia toxicity due to an increased dissociated behavior of ammonia ion. The anticipated climate-warming changes in the water temperature in stream elevations and changes in the air temperature increase the river temperature and increase ammonia toxicity via the elevation of aerobic metabolism (oxygen consumption) [76]. In the present environmental scenario, there is much evidence that indicates the increase in river temperature, agricultural water withdrawal, municipal discharge, and ammonia loading of the river basin [32,77]. Tongnunui et al. [77] observed that the average air temperature in Thailand has increased significantly by 0.5 to 0.95 °C during a 30-year period until 2022 that elevates the average river temperature and shifts the diurnal river temperature dynamic. Ambient temperatures of rivers in freshwater ecosystems tend to increase with the air temperature, thereby giving more impact on the fish community in the future. In this study, we found that balitorids strictly responded with both the river temperature and ammonia concentration. Therefore, balitorids may be at a greater risk if there are anthropogenic pressures, heat emissions, and a warming climate continually increasing in the Eastern Thailand’s freshwater ecosystem, which alter the water’s physicochemical properties due to raising the river temperature and increasing the ammonia concentration that resulted in the degradation of streams and rivers.

5. Conclusions

Global climate change and high anthropogenic pollution, as well as the increases in river temperature, ammonia concentration, and other pollutants (i.e., iron) in streams may shift the distribution and abundance of balitorids in the Eastern Thailand’s freshwater ecosystem. Thus, use of most balitorids as a bioindicator (as an early warning indicator and compliance indicator) for river temperature effects in combination with ammonia nutrient stressors, can be proposed for environmental risk assessment and water quality in Thailand and Southeast Asia. Further monitoring of the tropical river in Eastern Thailand and a deeper understanding of balitorid physiology are needed to evaluate how the elevated ambient temperature of rivers and anthropogenic activities (including agricultural activity, deforestation, country development, etc.) influence the range and stability of their population, abundance, species richness, occurrence frequency, and absence in the eastern river basin. This study is of utmost significance when considering the response to the loss of freshwater biodiversity and river degradation in warming temperatures and more variable climate changes caused by higher anthropogenic pollution.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.W.H.B., S.T., T.S. and A.W.; data curation, S.T., C.S. and P.I.; methodology, S.T., T.S., C.C., W.S. and A.W.; validation, F.W.H.B., T.S. and S.T.; formal analysis, T.S., S.T., C.S. and P.I.; investigation, S.T., F.W.H.B., T.S., C.C., W.S. and A.W.; resources, S.T., F.W.H.B., T.S., C.C., W.S., A.W., C.S. and P.I.; writing—original draft preparation, S.T. and T.S.; writing—review and editing, T.S., S.T., A.W., C.C., W.S., F.W.H.B., C.S. and P.I.; visualization, T.S., A.W., S.T., C.S. and P.I.; supervision, F.W.H.B., T.S., A.W. and S.T.; project administration, S.T., C.C., W.S., F.W.H.B. and T.S.; funding acquisition, S.T., F.W.H.B., T.S., C.C. and W.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded in part by the National Research Council of Thailand, NRCT (grant no. N25A650460) and the National Science and Technology Development Agency, NSTDA (grant no. FDA-CO-2560-4730-TH).

Acknowledgments

The fish collecting permit was authorized by the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand. We appreciated the facilities supported by the Central Instrument Facility of Kanchanaburi Campus, Mahidol University and the faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand.

Conflicts of Interest

The author Treerat Sooksawat is an employee of MDPI, however she does not work for the journal Water at the time of submission and publication.

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Water 15 02791 g001
Figure 1. Sampling sites located in the Nakon Nayok (a), Chonburi (b), Rayong (c), Chantaburi (d), and Trat (e) provinces in Eastern Thailand.
Figure 1. Sampling sites located in the Nakon Nayok (a), Chonburi (b), Rayong (c), Chantaburi (d), and Trat (e) provinces in Eastern Thailand.
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Figure 2. Particle sizes of substrates (a), dissolved silica (b), total iron (c), river temperature (d), nitrate (e), and ammonia (f) in streams for each sampling site (n = 95) in the Eastern Thailand basin.
Figure 2. Particle sizes of substrates (a), dissolved silica (b), total iron (c), river temperature (d), nitrate (e), and ammonia (f) in streams for each sampling site (n = 95) in the Eastern Thailand basin.
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Figure 3. Estimated balitorid richness (a) and relative abundance (b) in the eastern river basin, Thailand, based on the equations of Log (S + 1) = 0−.151 + 0.394 Log (ST coded + 1) + 0.101 Log (N + 1) and Log (Ab + 1) = 0.5 − 140.689 Log (Fe + 1), respectively.
Figure 3. Estimated balitorid richness (a) and relative abundance (b) in the eastern river basin, Thailand, based on the equations of Log (S + 1) = 0−.151 + 0.394 Log (ST coded + 1) + 0.101 Log (N + 1) and Log (Ab + 1) = 0.5 − 140.689 Log (Fe + 1), respectively.
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Figure 4. Percentage of occurrence frequency of balitorid species (presence in all study sites) in the eastern river basin, Thailand.
Figure 4. Percentage of occurrence frequency of balitorid species (presence in all study sites) in the eastern river basin, Thailand.
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Figure 5. Distribution of balitorid loach species with respect to significant habitat variables. The upper panel illustrates the significant variable habitats on axes one and two and, for each, the vector length and direction. The lower location illustrates loach species in relation to axes one and two and the clusters of loach species, respectively. Individual species of balitorids are identified by numbers (Table 2).
Figure 5. Distribution of balitorid loach species with respect to significant habitat variables. The upper panel illustrates the significant variable habitats on axes one and two and, for each, the vector length and direction. The lower location illustrates loach species in relation to axes one and two and the clusters of loach species, respectively. Individual species of balitorids are identified by numbers (Table 2).
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Table 1. Environmental variables presented by geometric mean (±SD) from 95 river sites in eastern Thailand.
Table 1. Environmental variables presented by geometric mean (±SD) from 95 river sites in eastern Thailand.
Environmental FactorsGM ± SDEnvironmental FactorsGM ± SD
Alkalinity, mg/L as CaCO3127.1 ± 2.8Nitrate, mg NO3/L3.4 ± 2.3
Ammonia, mg NH3·L−1235.2 ± 7.6Oxygen, mg/L5.7 ± 1.4
BOD, mg/L65.7 ± 7.8pH7.1 ± 0.7
Canopy, % cover36.2 ± 4.1Silica, mg SiO2/L13.1 ± 3.5
Conduct, μS/cm516.1 ± 2.88Substrate, (Code)3.5 ± 1.5
Depth, cm22.0 ± 1.7Temperature, °C26.5 ± 1.1
Discharge, L/s234.2 ± 5.5Turbid, NTU28.1 ± 2.4
Elevation, m71.2 ± 2.0Velocity, cm/s23.5 ± 2.9
Width, m 3.7 ± 1.6Total Iron, mg Fe/L1.0 ± 1.4
Length, m32.6 ± 1.8Phosphate, mg PO43−/L6.4 ± 2.4
Color, CPU107.6 ± 9.6
Table 2. Sum of the average captured-fish numbers from 3–5 passes at each site (N in 95 sites), relative abundance (N/100 m2), and occurrence frequency (%) by species and ID species across all studied sites in Eastern Thailand. Identification numbers (ID) are used in Figure 5 to distinguish species.
Table 2. Sum of the average captured-fish numbers from 3–5 passes at each site (N in 95 sites), relative abundance (N/100 m2), and occurrence frequency (%) by species and ID species across all studied sites in Eastern Thailand. Identification numbers (ID) are used in Figure 5 to distinguish species.
SpeciesIDSum of
Average Fish		Relative AbundanceOccurrence Frequency (%)
GM ± SDRanges
Paracanthocobitis zonalternans (Blyth, 1860)186.10.86 ± 1.680.26–5.45.2
Homalopteroides smithi (Hora, 1932) 27.50.1 ± 1.230.7–3.14.2
Homaloptera orthogoniata
(Vaillant, 1902)		31.3<0.10.0–0.23.1
Nemacheilus masyae (Smith, 1933) 46.10.1 ± 1.200.2–45.2
Nemacheilus platiceps
(Kottelat, 1990)		580.1 ± 1.250.2–6.23.1
Schistura kohchangensis
(Smith, 1933)		6108.51.15 ± 1.880.8–66.75.2
Acanthopsis rungthipae (Boyd et al., 2017)713.10.14 ± 1.310–13.11.1
Acanthopsis cf. rungthipae
(Boyd et al., 2017)		831.20.33 ± 1.500.6–19.34.2
Lepidocephalichthys berdmorei
(Blyth, 1986)		92.3<0.10.0–2.31.1
Lepidocephalichthys hasselti
(Valenciennes, 1846)		10179.62.0 ± 2.361–52.422.1
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Tongnunui, S.; Beamish, F.W.H.; Sooksawat, T.; Wattanakornsiri, A.; Chotwiwatthanakun, C.; Supiwong, W.; Intacharoen, P.; Sudtongkong, C. Temporal Changes in Water Quality with Increasing Ambient Temperatures Affect the Distribution and Relative Abundance of 10 Species of Balitorid Fishes in Small Streams of Eastern Thailand. Water 2023, 15, 2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152791

AMA Style

Tongnunui S, Beamish FWH, Sooksawat T, Wattanakornsiri A, Chotwiwatthanakun C, Supiwong W, Intacharoen P, Sudtongkong C. Temporal Changes in Water Quality with Increasing Ambient Temperatures Affect the Distribution and Relative Abundance of 10 Species of Balitorid Fishes in Small Streams of Eastern Thailand. Water. 2023; 15(15):2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152791

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tongnunui, Sampan, F. W. H. Beamish, Treerat Sooksawat, Amnuay Wattanakornsiri, Charoonroj Chotwiwatthanakun, Weerayuth Supiwong, Prasarn Intacharoen, and Chanyut Sudtongkong. 2023. "Temporal Changes in Water Quality with Increasing Ambient Temperatures Affect the Distribution and Relative Abundance of 10 Species of Balitorid Fishes in Small Streams of Eastern Thailand" Water 15, no. 15: 2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152791

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