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Article

Small Doses of Lime with Common Fertilizer Practices Improve Soil Characteristics and Foster the Sustainability of Maize Production

by
Marijana Dugalić
1,†,
Ljubomir Životić
2,*,
Boško Gajić
2 and
Dragana Latković
3
1
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Niš, Kosančićeva 4, 37000 Kruševac, Serbia
2
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
3
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 8, 21102 Novi Sad, Serbia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
This paper is a part of the PhD thesis of Marijana Dugalić.
Agronomy 2024, 14(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14010046
Submission received: 23 November 2023 / Revised: 8 December 2023 / Accepted: 14 December 2023 / Published: 23 December 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Lime application combined with complementary sustainable management practices increases crop yields, but liming is only modestly applied in Serbia. This study investigated the influence of liming (1000 kg/ha) combined with the common application of mineral fertilizers on maize yield and the chemical properties of pseudogley soil. The experiment was conducted near Kraljevo, Western Serbia, on the maize hybrid ZP 606 sown in a two-year monoculture. The experiment had three treatments: fertilizer, fertilizer + lime, and a control treatment. The soil is acid, poor in humus, and contains an increased content of mobile aluminum. There was a significant increase in yield under the fertilizer and lime + fertilizer treatments, compared to the control. The yield of maize in the limed treatment was 4.4–9% higher than in the fertilizer treatment. The positive effects of liming on soil are related to an increase in pH, base saturation, and available phosphorus, and a decrease in available aluminum. In the fertilizer treatment, there was a small decrease in pH and base saturation, whereas the amount of aluminum remained high, indicating that the further application of fertilizers without lime can increase aluminum content and foster its toxicity. The long-term sustainability of maize production in Serbia should include liming as a regular management practice on pseudogley soil, with the utilization of smaller doses of lime because of the potential CO2 effects. To improve soil health, food, and environmental security, and to incorporate new crops, developing a framework promoting liming as a sustainable management practice is of high importance.

1. Introduction

In Serbia, one of the main threats to good agricultural productivity is soil acidity. Almost 15% of agricultural soil in Serbia is acidic (pH in water < 5.5). The sustainable use of acid soil requires adequate nutrient inputs and soil amendments, such as lime, compost, manure, and biochar, to optimize crop nutrition and achieve sustainable crop production [1,2]. Naturally, processes of soil acidity refer to the carbonic acid-triggered leaching of basic cations, weathering of acidic parent materials, decomposition of organic matter, and deposition of atmospheric gases [3,4]. Anthropogenic activities include the inappropriate use of acid-forming fertilizers and poor soil management. The long-term application of high rates of N fertilizers, loss of cations via leaching and removal [5], and continuous cropping without organic inputs are among the anthropogenic factors that increase soil acidity [6,7]. Low nutrient availability associated with soil acidity is a major constraint on crop production.
Maize (Zea mays L.) grows well on neutral to mildly acidic soil, and liming can be used to control yield. The average maize yield in Serbia (2012–2021) is 6.3 ± 1.6 t∙ha−1 [8]. The high variation in yield is a consequence of rainfall patterns and other management and edaphic factors, such as soil fertility, lower nutrient availability, the water-air regime in soil, smaller parcels, and less commercially oriented and dominantly rainfed production.
Liming is one of the most common practices to ameliorate acid soil, with many well-understood benefits. It causes the reduction of Al and Mn toxicity [9,10], maximizes nutrient availability for plants [11,12], decreases P immobilization [13], improves physical [14] and biological soil quality [15], and enhances crop production. Liming also enhances the C sequestration rate of both minerally fertilized and organically manured plots [16]. The effect of lime rates on soil chemical characteristics depends on the lime type and particle size [10,17], soil buffering capacity, organic matter content [10], initial soil acidity, Ca and Mg contents, the participation of cations in the adsorptive complex, crop response to liming, crop management practices, and economic considerations [10,18]. Two different liming materials (calcite, dolomite) are the most-used materials for acidity correction in Serbia, and soil pH and base saturation are the primary determinants of lime doses. Lime is mainly used together with mineral fertilizers, and less with the appropriate addition of manure, due to its scarcity.
Another important concern regarding liming is its potential impact on climate change. In the contact of limestone and strong acids in the soil, some of the limestone is degraded and C is released as CO2. De Klein et al. [19] proposed a CO2 emission coefficient of 0.12 Mg C per Mg for limestone, which indicates that 100% of C in CaCO3 is eventually released to the atmosphere in the form of CO2. This assumption appears unlikely because of the very low solubility of CaCO3 and carbonate transport through soil [20]. Hijbek et al. [21] stated that lime application causes substantial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, whereas Holland et al. [15] stated that the impacts of liming are complex and that there are markedly different changes in emissions between different gases. In fact, liming material can act either as a net source or a net sink for carbon dioxide (CO2) [22]. The IPCC statement creates a concern for policy makers and farmers regarding the optimal doses of lime for the amelioration of soil, because excessive liming is obviously not environmentally friendly [23].
Sustainable soil management must consider all the known benefits and constraints of liming, including potential CO2 emissions. There is a lack of data regarding GHG emissions by agricultural activities in Serbia. Patently, smaller doses of lime are less harmful. This study proposes a rational approach to determining the appropriate amount of liming material in combination with mineral fertilizers to improve the chemical properties of pseudogley soils. Appropriate fertilizer and lime use could contribute to higher and more stable yields of maize in the region where acidic soils are distributed and production is oriented toward dairy farmers. We contend that a rational system of maize fertilization on acidic pseudogley soils should include liming not as an ameliorative measure (higher amounts for longer periods), but as a sustainable measure to be used every third year in combination with mineral fertilizers.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

This study was conducted in the village of Ratina in the Raška district, 7 km east from the city of Kraljevo, in the western part of Serbia. The dominant farming system of the district is rainfed farming of field crops for human and animal consumption. The average productivity of maize is lower compared with northern regions because of the challenges of low soil fertility, land shortage, smaller parcels, and lower investments. Tillage usually consists of fall plowing (depth 20–25–30 cm) and spring disking and harrowing, which are standard farming practices in Western Serbia [24].
Maize is predominantly grown in Western Serbia in river valleys and old lacustrine sediment terraces above river valleys, which is the main zone of pseudogley soils in Serbia. Pseudogley soils corresponds to reference soil groups of planosols and less often to stagnosols of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources [25]. These soils cover an area of approximately 500,000 ha in Serbia and about 32,000 ha in the Čačansko-Kraljevački basin, which is an important agricultural area in Western Serbia. There are no consistent data about the area of maize grown on pseudogley soils in this basin, as the distribution changes from year to year, but considering the number of cattle farms, especially those with dairy cows, it can be assumed that approximately 20,000 ha of maize is grown on this type of soil. Pseudogley soils are generally characterized by lower fertility and weak soil-water and physical characteristics. Despite this, the advantage of these soils is that they usually cover flat terrain or terrain with mild slopes and are easily accessible to agricultural machinery. They are also located in well-populated areas, and their agricultural significance is therefore very high. The acidic reaction of pseudogley soils, low humus content, and reduced availability of the most important plant nutrients, primarily phosphorus and calcium, are limiting factors for achieving higher maize yields. In addition to the acidic reaction, pseudogley soils of the Čačansko-Kraljevački basin are characterized by an increased content of aluminum, iron, and manganese, which adversely affect the cultivation of most field crops. Another very important constraint is the poor water-air regime of pseudogley soils. These soils have an impermeable heavy-textured subsurface layer characterized by stagnic properties and reducing conditions for some period of the year. When the impermeable Btg–horizon is located at a shallow depth, root growth is impeded, and maize yields vary greatly from year to year, depending mainly on the precipitation pattern. In Serbia, regular agricultural operations are applied to these soils, but the effects of ameliorative measures can improve soil properties and crop production to a much higher extent. Liming is recommended for improving acidity in Serbia, but wider agricultural production does not accept liming as a regular measure. In addition, there is no overall recommendation about which fertilizers must be used in what quantities on these soils to ensure economically justified yields and avoid large fluctuations, especially in years with unfavorable meteorological conditions.
The climate of the study area is temperate, with mild winters and moderately dry summers. It is characterized by high rainfall variability during the vegetative season. The climate characteristics recorded during the experimental period are shown in Table 1. The rainfall amount in the vegetative period of the first season was much higher compared to the second season and was also higher than the multiannual averages. However, the second season was moderately humid, with a lack of serious dry spells.

2.2. Experimental Details

The experiment was carried out in the village of Ratina, at an elevation of 236 m above sea level. It was set up in a randomized block design with three replications. The size of the elementary plot was 35 m2. The experiment included the following treatments: (a) control treatment (unfertilized); (b) fertilizer treatment: 155 kg∙ha−1 of nitrogen, 80 kg∙ha−1 of phosphorus, and 80 kg∙ha−1 of potassium; and (c) Liming with fertilization—1000 kg∙ha−1 of lime material with the same amount of fertilizer as in the second treatment. The liming material used was Terra Calco 95, which is granulated, contains 77% CaO, and was produced in Jelen Dol, 55 km from Kraljevo. Lime requirements are usually determined on a basis of the value of hydrolytic acidity. In this experiment, the doses of liming material were reduced, with a plan to apply moderate liming every third year. In practice, we observed that large amounts of liming material added at once causes the immobilization of the available forms of nutrients, especially in the emergence stage of maize. This was noted in practice, especially if organic fertilizers are not applied. Lime material in the amount of 1000 kg/ha was added into the soil in the autumn together with the entire amounts of phosphorus and potassium (80 kg∙ha−1 both), and deeply plowed. The soil was fertilized with 500 kg∙ha−1 of NPK (16:16:16). Pre-sowing soil preparation was carried out immediately before sowing, and an additional 75 kg N∙ha−1 (280 kg∙ha−1 of calcium-ammonium nitrate) was applied. Manual sowing took place on 17 April 2020 and 14 April 2021. The spacing density was 5.71 plant/m2, 70 × 25 cm. Maize hybrid ZP 606 was cultivated in both years. It is a mid-late hybrid from the Maize Research Institute in Zemun Polje, Serbia, belonging to the FAO group 600. Pests were controlled by integrated pest management practices that were standardized in the region. Additional agricultural practices during the vegetative period were thinning at the two-leaf stage to adjust the plant population to the desired levels, correction with herbicides at the 6-leaf stage, and two inter-row cultivations at the 8- and 12-leaf stages. Harvesting was done manually on 31 October 2020, and 11 November 2021. The total cob yield from each plot was measured, and after crowning, the harvest index was calculated. The total yield was recalculated to 14% moisture.

2.3. Soil Sampling and Laboratory Analysis

The soil was sampled in November 2019 and again in 2021 after the experiment was carried out to determine the physical and chemical characteristics. The soil is classified as moderately deep pseudogley soil. Soil samples to determine soil texture were collected from the open soil profile. The composite soil samples for the determination of chemical characteristics were collected from 0–30 and 30–60 cm depths, before planting and after harvest, from five points using the crisscross sampling technique, and from each experimental plot. The particle size distribution was determined by combining the sieving and pipette methods [26], and the soil textural class was determined according to the USDA triangle. Soil pH values were measured potentiometrically in 1:2.5 soil:water and 1:2.5 soil:1 M KCl suspensions [26]. Soil organic matter (SOM) was determined using the dichromate method [26]. Total nitrogen was determined using the semi-micro Kjeldahl method, modified according to Bremner [27]. Hydrolytic acidity was determined with Ca-acetate using the Kappen method [27]. The sum of adsorbed base cations was determined using the Kappen method, whereas base saturation (BS) and total cation exchange capacity (CEC) were computed [27]. The forms of easily available P2O5 and K2O were determined following the Al method of extraction with lactic acid [28]. The available aluminum was determined according to the method of Sokolov [27].

2.4. Statistical Analysis

The maize grain yield obtained in the two seasons was statistically analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) for a completely randomized design with three replications. The means were compared using Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test at a 5% significance level. The analysis was conducted using the SPSS 20.0 statistical package.

3. Results

3.1. Pre-Experimental Soil Characteristics

The soil does not contain gravel and is characterized by a silt loam texture in the topsoil, and a clay loam texture from 20–40 cm depth (Table 2). The clay content increases with depth in the soil profile, and the soil texture is clayey, with a 46.1% clay content at 40–60 cm depth. Pre-experimental soil chemical characteristics are presented in Table 3. The soil had an acid reaction over 5.5 and lower than 6 in water solution at two depths, which is not quite a good medium for maize growth.
Base saturation was between 56.9 and 65.7%, indicating the need to increase the pH for good maize production. The soil was poor in humus but had moderate levels of available phosphorus and potassium due to previous agricultural activities. Available aluminum was 0.59 and 1.02 cmol∙kg−1 in two depths, indicating potential toxicity problems with a decrease in soil pH.

3.2. Effect of Fertilizers and Liming on Soil Characteristics

A short-term effect of the application of compound mineral fertilizers on soil chemical characteristics is presented in Table 4. The two-year application of fertilizers caused a negligible increase in base saturation at both depths (around 3% of absolute increase). There was a small decrease in the content of available potassium and total nitrogen, and phosphorus at the second depth.
Soil chemical reactions in KCl decreased at both investigated depths, whereas soil reactions in water decreased at the depth of 30–60 cm by almost 0.2 pH units. The content of available aluminum increased by 8.0% at the first depth, and decreased by 9.0% at the second investigated depth. The amounts of fertilizers added did not change the amounts of available nutrients in the soil drastically. The doses were quite accurately determined. The content of humus decreased by 14.0% in the 0–30 cm depth, whereas the change in the second depth was less than 3%. Total nitrogen was also found to be decreased by around 12% at both investigated depths.
The combined effects of liming and fertilizers on soil characteristics (Table 5) were more positive compared to the previously presented fertilizer treatment. The expected positive effect of lime on soil chemical reaction, base saturation, aluminum content at both depths, and available phosphorus was evident. Soil reaction in both water and KCl are increased by 12.3 and 17.1%, and 9.8 and 16.9%, for the first and second depth, in water and KCl, respectively.
The relative increase in base saturation was higher at the first depth, by more than 20%, from 56.9 to 69.3% in absolute values, but the increase was also evident at the second depth, with 9.0% of relative increase. The highest relative change was observed in the available aluminum content. It decreased by 2.3 and 5.4 times at the first and second depth, respectively.
The content of available phosphorus increased after two years of lime and fertilizer application by 2.0 and 1.9 times at the first and second depth. The changes in the humus content were higher compared with the fertilizer-only treatment. Namely, it decreased by 21% and 8.3% at the first and second depth, respectively. Similarly to the content of humus, total nitrogen content decreased by 16.7% at the first depth, and only 1.5% at the 30–60 cm depth.

3.3. Effect of Fertilization and Liming on Maize Yield

The maize grain yield in the two seasons was affected by the treatment. In both years the lowest yield was recorded on the control treatment. The average yield was 2780 kg∙ha−1 in 2020, and 1860 kg∙ha−1 in 2021. The applied mineral fertilizers significantly increased the yield compared with the control to 9723.3 kg∙ha−1 in 2020 and 9663 kg∙ha−1 in 2021. The yield was the highest when mineral fertilizers were applied together with lime, 10,170 and 10,616 kg∙ha−1, in 2020, and 2021, but there were no statistically significant differences among fertilized treatments (Figure 1). The yield in limed treatment in 2021 was 9.0% higher than the fertilized treatment, whereas a change of 4.4% was found in 2020.

4. Discussion

4.1. Effect of Liming on Soil Characteristics

Similarly to the present study, the application of 1 t∙ha−1 of lime significantly increased pH in the Mecha district of Ethiopia [29]. The pH rose from 4.85 to 5.52, a difference of 0.67 of a pH unit. The application of 3.5 t ∙ha−1 increased the pH to 6.21. Adane [30] reported that in Southern Ethiopia, the soil pH was raised from 5.03 to 6.72 by applying 3.75 t ha−1 of lime, and that the soil pH was raised from 5.03 to 5.64, a difference of 0.61 of a pH unit, after application of 1.25 t ha−1 of lime. In the present study, the addition of lime improved the main soil chemical properties, with evident benefits up to 0.60 m depth. The study of the effects of lime incorporation into the 0–40 cm depth of highly weathered tropical soils increased soil pH in water, and base saturation values in both the 0–20 and the 20–40 cm layers, in the state of Minas Gerais in southeastern Brazil [31]. Although lime has low solubility and mobility in soil, the results of the present study showed a rapid reaction to liming over a relatively short period as in Tiritan et al. [32]. The application of 1 t∙ha−1 of lime significantly increased base saturation in the study of Alemu et al. [29] from 69.8% to 72.4%, and after the application of 3.5 t∙ha−1 base saturation increased to 75.6%. The effect of lime on base saturation on pseudogley soils in the present study resulted in larger increases; 12.2% and 5.9% of absolute increase at the 0–30 and 30–60 cm depths. The increase in base saturation with the application of 1.5 t∙ha−1 of lime in the study of De Moraes et al. [31] was higher than that of the present study. In the temperate conditions of the Balkan Peninsula, Kovačević and Rastija [33] reported increases of pH in H2O of 1.16 units (4.50 to 5.68) with the addition of 5 t∙ha−1 of dolomite. However, these higher doses were added for a larger pH increase, in order to increase the amount of available phosphorus in the soil. In the present study, liming and fertilization almost doubled the available phosphorus at the 0–30 cm depth. This result is similar to the results reported by Alemu et al. [29], for the same dose of lime. Total cation exchange capacity did not change with the addition of lime in the present study, which contradicts the results of previously reported studies [29,30]. The application of 1 t∙ha−1 of lime decreased organic carbon content [29] from 2.19% to 1.89% (more than 15%) in Ethiopia. In the present study the decrease was even larger, 21% at the 0–30 cm depth. Contrary to previous findings, Crusciol et al. [34] found a significant increase in soil organic matter (SOM) after the application of lime and N fertilizer. The enhanced effect of liming on SOM content was found up to a depth of 0.10 m, and at the highest lime rate, the positive effect of N fertilization on SOM content propagated up to a depth of 0.4 m. There were no statistically significant changes in SOM content with the addition of 5, 10 and 15 t∙ha−1 of dolomite in the Slavonia region of Croatia [33]. The impacts of liming on soil carbon storage are variable and strongly related to soil type, land use, climate, and multiple management factors [15]. The larger decrease in SOM content in the temperate conditions of Serbia may be attributed to very low pre-experimental SOM content, moist conditions during the investigated seasons, and increased microbiological activity at higher pH values. Also, in the experiments in Ethiopia, Brasil, and Croatia, initial soil organic carbon contents were higher. The application of 1 t∙ha−1 of lime decreased total nitrogen content from 0.17 to 0.139% in Alemu et al. [29], which is a decrease of around 20% as in the present study. Alvarez et al. [35] reported a fundamental role played by long-term N application in increasing SOM levels, but these effects are due to the increase in residues returned to the soil. The soil had a high content of available aluminum before the experiment. The available aluminum content was very close to the threshold value of 1.1 cmol∙kg−1 (10 mg∙100 g−1) previously found by Dugalić [36] in Serbian conditions. Liming reduced the available aluminum in the soil to ~1% of total cation exchange capacity. On fertilizer-only treatment plots its content remained quite consistent (3.3% of T value) and still presents a potential toxicity problem.

4.2. Effect of Fertilization and Liming on Maize Grain Yield

In the present study, total grain yield significantly increased with liming. The applied lime did not show any significant effect on maize grain yield compared with the fertilizer-only treatment, but the application of lime still increased the yield as compared to that treatment. Contrary to our findings, the effect of different doses of phosphorus fertilizers (750, 1250, and 1750 kg∙ha−1) applied on strongly acid soils in Northern Bosnia did not have significant effects on maize grain yield [37], primarily because of the lack of phosphorus available to plants. The maximum increase in grain yield in their study was only 0.38–1.72 t∙ha−1. This was also attributed to the lower initial pH value of the soil in their study. Moreover, ameliorative P fertilization has been found useful for increasing yields, but these effects are generally lower than the combined effects of fertilization and liming [38]. The positive effects of liming and P fertilization on yields of maize in the temperate region of the Balkans were also found by earlier studies [33,39]. All these results indicate the necessity for liming and phosphorus mobilization in these soils, and to strive for the improved and better organized liming management in the region. In fact, liming and increased P fertilization are common recommendations for improving pseudogley soils all over the Balkan Peninsula.

4.3. Liming Environmental Footprint

According to several authors who have conducted maize liming experiments recently [31,34,40], the greatest crop yield increases were found with higher rates of lime. However, these positive results should be weighed against the potential emissions of GHG after liming. The results obtained in this study are potentially environmentally friendly, as the good effects on the grain yield of maize were obtained with small doses of lime. Theoretically, the applied doses of lime released less CO2 into atmosphere than larger doses would have. Agriculture accounts for roughly 12% of GHG emissions per year. It is at the same time a highly vulnerable sector and one with considerable mitigation potential. CO2 emissions after liming are potentially smaller if smaller doses are applied. These emissions can be compensated for if liming leads to more efficient use of fertilizers and improves the yields in the most efficient manner. Therefore, the environmental benefits of liming can justify public investments in soil liming alongside other motivations such as safeguarding long-term soil fertility and improving farmers’ livelihoods [21].

4.4. Liming Application in Western Serbia: Problems and Perspectives

Liming is a common management practice around the world, but there is considerable uncertainty about its economic feasibility. The results of an analysis carried out in Western Kenya, including costs of labor and the associated profits across a period of five years, were only positive when liming was combined with fertilizer application [21]. Similar results were obtained in Brazil [41]. The highest economic benefits of lime application are achieved with the higher lime treatments, but lime should be considered a capital investment and economic evaluation should be undertaken over a long period. The analysis depends on a given crop rotation, cannot observe maize separately, and should also take into account long-term effects. Furthermore, the focus on lime rate is important from the economic and environmental viewpoints, but the frequency of lime application is also of concern. The economic response to liming varies among soils [15], which makes this analysis more complex. The other factors affecting liming feasibility are the quality of liming material, the supply of nitrogen, crop price risks, and lime input costs. In Kenya, liming as a long-term economic strategy can be problematic for farmers who lack investment capital and may have short-term decision time frames [21]. This also applies to most smallholder farmers in Serbia. The amounts of required lime, whether small or large, have high transportation costs. This might be one of the reasons for the low application of liming in Serbia. This problem can be solved with the utilization of railways for the transportation of liming material in Western Serbia, as there are quite good logistics for such shipments. In this manner, the cost of transportation could be diminished for farmers, and they would be enabled to place larger quantities of lime on their farms and apply the lime with the appropriate liming rates and frequencies. The Ministry of Agriculture tried subsidizing liming material a decade ago, but practical professional application was lacking. Since there are still needs for liming, a new potential subsidy from the state could reduce the cost of liming material, and with further consolidation of small agri-holdings, liming might become a regular agricultural practice on acid soils. Luvisols and pseudogleys are acid soils in Serbia used in agricultural production. Luvisols are located in hilly regions and used for intensive raspberry production, whereas pseudogley soils are found on lower terrains and have some other associated problems. The effect of liming on them is affected by the soil-water regime and the depth and compactness of the impermeable layer, in addition to poor fertility and potential toxicity problems. In order to increase the effect of liming and fertilization on pseudogley soils, it is necessary to improve the water-air regime of these soils. The most appropriae though not often used measures in Serbia are deep tillage, subsoiling, and pipe drainage. These measures are costly but provide many benefits to soil and production in the long run. Using these measures would multiply the effects of lime. The potential increase in pH after liming enables the introduction of some new crops into the rotation. In the Čačansko-Kraljevački region, there is a lack of good quality animal feed. With liming and the practices named above, alfalfa could be included in the area’s crop rotation as an important forage crop. Liming management appears to be very complex and requires good organization. The application of lime and other complementary agricultural practices offers substantial yield improvements [42]. Unfortunately, liming is a measure only sporadically applied in Serbia. In the current context, the uptake of liming in Serbia seems unlikely without external initiatives, regional programs, facilitation, and incentives.

4.5. Liming Sustainability

The obtained results of improved yields in two fertilized treatments are satisfactory for the conditions of Western Serbia. There was an insignificant difference in yield between the limed and fertilizer-only treatments. However, the positive effects of lime on soil characteristics were notable. There was an increase in pH, base saturation, and available phosphorus, and a decrease in available aluminum. In the fertilizer-only treatment, there was a very small decrease in pH and base saturation, and the amount of aluminum remained consistent. Although small in this experiment, this negative trend in soil characteristics with the fertilizer-only treatment might worsen in the future. If fertilizers are applied without lime and provoke a stronger deterioration of soil properties, there could be a future increase in aluminum and its toxicity. Therefore, for the sake of the long-term sustainability of maize production, liming appears to be not an optional but a necessary measure.
The sustainability of liming application in Western Serbia also requires economic analyses which have not yet been conducted. The public usually requires straightforward proof of the economic benefits of liming. However, in conditions when liming is accompanied by regular management practices, such as fertilizer application, manuring, deep tillage, and irrigation, it is more likely that farmers will see benefits than losses. The best way to resolve the uncertainty is to develop a framework for liming application in order to improve food security in the Čačansko-Krajevački region. It should particularly address pseudogley soils due to their above-mentioned constraints. From the point of view of the long-term sustainability of maize production on acid soils, liming appears to be a measure which is underrated. This framework should include all the factors referring to lime management and include monitoring of the effects of liming on soil health and crop production, while simultaneously computing the environmental footprint of liming. In the current context, the uptake of liming in Serbia seems unlikely to happen without external initiatives. Therefore, the development of a framework can be initiated after local incentives are in place and include actors from farm management to decision making levels. It should be focused on developing management protocols which will promote liming as a sustainable soil management practice.

5. Conclusions

The positive effect of liming and fertilization was observed after two years of experimentation on maize grown on pseudogley soils. Significant yield improvements were observed in both fertilized treatments as compared to the control. The differences in yield between the fertilized treatments with and without liming were not significant, although 4.4–9.0% higher yields were obtained with the limed treatment. However, the applied 1 t of lime per hectare affected soil characteristics. Soil reaction in water and KCl was reduced, base saturation increased, and liming increased the availability of phosphorus, and the content of available aluminum decreased. Mineral fertilizers applied without liming affected soil chemical characteristics in a different manner. There was a small decrease in pH and base saturation, and the amount of aluminum remained consistent. Therefore, the additional application of fertilizers without lime can, in the long run, foster negative trends in soil characteristics, provoke stronger deterioration of soil properties, and possibly cause an increase in aluminum and its toxicity. This could potentially affect food security. In practical terms, this means that liming is sustainability measure in crop production and it should be conducted on a regular basis. However, in Serbia, the use of liming is still very modest because of unknown economic feasibility and bad organization. In the current context, the uptake of liming in Serbia seems unlikely to happen without governmental/regional support via programs, facilitation, and incentives. The long-term sustainability of maize production on acid soils is under threat, and liming appears to be an underrated practice. Therefore, there is a need to develop a liming application framework to solve these problems. This framework should include all the actors and factors referring to liming management and be focused on developing protocols promoting liming as a sustainable management practice which will simultaneously enhance crop production, improve soil health, and save the environment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.D., D.L. and L.Ž.; methodology, M.D. and D.L.; software, M.D.; validation, B.G. and D.L.; investigation, M.D. and L.Ž.; resources, B.G. and L.Ž.; data curation, M.D.; writing—original draft preparation, M.D. and L.Ž.; writing—review and editing, B.G. and D.L.; visualization, B.G.; supervision, D.L.; project administration, L.Ž. and M.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was financially supported by the Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovations of the Republic of Serbia under Grants 451-03-47/2023-01/200088 and 451-03-47/2023-01/200116.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Agronomy 14 00046 g001
Figure 1. Grain yield of maize (14% moisture) per season and treatment; different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05.
Figure 1. Grain yield of maize (14% moisture) per season and treatment; different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05.
Agronomy 14 00046 g001
Table 1. Climate characteristics at meteorological station Kraljevo (219 m a.s.l., 43°43′ N, 20°42′ E; ~1 km far away from the experimental field) during the two growing seasons.
Table 1. Climate characteristics at meteorological station Kraljevo (219 m a.s.l., 43°43′ N, 20°42′ E; ~1 km far away from the experimental field) during the two growing seasons.
Climate CharacteristicsMonth
AprMayJuneJulyAugSeptOct
First season—2020
Tmin (°C)4.210.514.415.516.312.88.2
Tmax (°C)19.721.725.328.429.026.719.8
Rainfall (mm)36.984.4147.3127.7117.77.5101.9
Second season—2021
Tmin (°C)3.810.514.218.215.411.05.2
Tmax (°C)16.123.328.731.830.125.415.7
Rainfall (mm)66.156.926.383.433.524.586.7
Table 2. Particle size distribution.
Table 2. Particle size distribution.
Depth (cm)Particle Size Distribution (%, mm)Soil Texture
0.25–20.05–0.250.05–20.002–0.05<0.002
0–200.825.025.856.317.9Silt loam
20–400.921.222.144.133.8Clay loam
40–700.317.317.636.346.1Clay
Table 3. Soil chemical characteristics before the experiment.
Table 3. Soil chemical characteristics before the experiment.
DepthSOMpHT–SSTBSNP2O5K2OAl
cm%H2OKClcmol kg−1%%mg∙100 g−1cmol∙kg−1
0–301.865.604.1010.614.024.656.90.1209.015.20.59
30–600.725.634.028.516.224.765.80.0668.116.41.02
SOM—Soil Organic Matter; T–S—Hydrolitic Acidity; S—Sum of Exchangeable Cations; T—Total Cation Exchange Capacity, BS—Base Saturation; N—Total Nitrogen; P2O5—Available Phosphorus; K2O—Available Potassium; Al—Available Aluminum.
Table 4. Chemical characteristics of pseudogley soil two years after the application of mineral fertilizers.
Table 4. Chemical characteristics of pseudogley soil two years after the application of mineral fertilizers.
DepthSOMpHT–SSTBSNP2O5K2OAl
cm%H2OKClcmol∙kg−1%%mg∙100 g−1cmol∙kg−1
0–301.605.604.0010.612.823.854.70.1069.213.80.63
30–600.705.423.8010.517.528.162.40.0587.215.50.93
SOM—Soil Organic Matter; T–S—Hydrolitic Acidity; S—Sum of Exchangeable Cations; T—Total Cation Exchange Capacity, BS—Base Saturation; N—Total Nitrogen; P2O5—Available Phosphorus; K2O—Available Potassium; Al—Available Aluminum.
Table 5. Chemical characteristics of pseudogley soil two years after the application of lime and mineral fertilizers.
Table 5. Chemical characteristics of pseudogley soil two years after the application of lime and mineral fertilizers.
DepthSOMpHT–SSTBSNP2O5K2OAl
cm%H2OKClcmol∙kg−1%%mg∙100 g−1cmol∙kg−1
0–301.476.294.507.116.123.269.30.10018.321.20.26
30–600.666.594.707.418.726.171.70.06515.517.50.19
SOM—Soil Organic Matter; T–S—Hydrolitic Acidity; S—Sum of Exchangeable Cations; T—Total Cation Exchange Capacity, BS—Base Saturation; N—Total Nitrogen; P2O5—Available Phosphorus; K2O—Available Potassium; Al—Available Aluminum.
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Dugalić, M.; Životić, L.; Gajić, B.; Latković, D. Small Doses of Lime with Common Fertilizer Practices Improve Soil Characteristics and Foster the Sustainability of Maize Production. Agronomy 2024, 14, 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14010046

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Dugalić M, Životić L, Gajić B, Latković D. Small Doses of Lime with Common Fertilizer Practices Improve Soil Characteristics and Foster the Sustainability of Maize Production. Agronomy. 2024; 14(1):46. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14010046

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Dugalić, Marijana, Ljubomir Životić, Boško Gajić, and Dragana Latković. 2024. "Small Doses of Lime with Common Fertilizer Practices Improve Soil Characteristics and Foster the Sustainability of Maize Production" Agronomy 14, no. 1: 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14010046

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