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Article

Unveiling the Dynamics of Millet Spread into Xinjiang: New Evidence of the Timing, Pathways, and Cultural Background

by
Duo Tian
1,2,3,*,†,
Jingbo Li
4,5,†,
Yongqiang Wang
1,6,*,
Zhihao Dang
1,6,
Xiangpeng Zhang
6,
Chunchang Li
6 and
Youcheng Xu
6
1
China-Central Asia “the Belt and Road” Joint Laboratory on Human and Environment Research, School of Cultural Heritage, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China
2
Key Laboratory of Cultural Heritage Research and Conservation, School of Cultural Heritage, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China
3
School of Culture Heritage, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China
4
Stanford Archaeology Center, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
5
Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
6
Xinjiang Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Urumqi 830011, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Agronomy 2023, 13(7), 1802; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13071802
Submission received: 31 May 2023 / Revised: 29 June 2023 / Accepted: 1 July 2023 / Published: 6 July 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Millet and Pseudocereals: New Insights into Archaeobotany, Plant Domestication and Global Foodways)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Xinjiang, in Northwestern China, was a key point in the prehistoric trans-Eurasian network of exchange and played an important role in facilitating the dispersal of crops across Eurasia. Millet crops were first cultivated and used ca. 10,000 years ago in Northern China, from where they spread via different routes, leaving intriguing traces in various sites across Xinjiang. This paper presents the latest data on millet in Xinjiang. By employing a multidisciplinary approach, including radiocarbon dating, archaeobotanical evidence, and carbon isotope datasets, this study explores potential routes by which millet entered Xinjiang and traces its expansion from the third millennium BC to the 10th century AD. The research highlights the significant role of millet in shaping the ancient economies and cultures of Xinjiang and Central Asia, while also underscoring the importance of further investigation to uncover the complex pathways of its dispersal across Eurasia.

1. Introduction

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) are important crops which played a significant role in the economic and cultural development of East Asia. The cultivation of millet in Eastern Eurasia is believed to have begun around 10,000 years ago in the loess area of Northern China, where early evidence has been found in Donghulin [1], Nanzhuangtou [2], and Cishan [3]. Millet spread south to Southeast Asia [4,5] and east to Northeast Asia and Japan [6] during 5000–2000 BC. Owing to its adaptability to arid, cold, and high-altitude environments, millet reached the Hexi Corridor and the Tibetan Plateau after the third millennium BC [7,8]. In the second millennium BC, millet was cultivated in the western regions of Eurasia [9]. The Inner Asian Mountain Corridor (IAMC) in Central Asia was one of the bridges for the trans-regional expansion of crops after the third millennium BC [10,11,12]. In addition to archaeobotanical evidence, significant information on potential early millet consumption has been revealed by research on human and animal diets conducted through stable isotopic analysis. For example, isotopic research in eastern Central Asia and Southern Siberia has shown that humans and livestock consumed a certain proportion of C4 plants during the Bronze Age [12,13,14,15,16,17,18]. The increasing number of archaeobotanical and isotopic data have allowed scholars to outline a low-resolution scheme of millet dispersal, enhancing our understanding of the process of food globalization in prehistoric Eurasia [4,19,20].
Situated at a geographical crossroads linking Northwestern China, Southern Siberia, and Central Asia, over millennia, Xinjiang has been a hub of east–west interactions involving movements of people, goods, and ideas. Millet grains and the remains of millet cakes recovered since the last century [21] have demonstrated the importance of this region for our understanding of the spread of this crop across Eurasia. While some millet remains from the Tongtiandong site date as early as the late third millennium BC, most of the specimens in Xinjiang date back to the second millennium BC [22,23]. Stable carbon isotopic analysis of human material dating to this period has also detected the presence of C4-derived foods in people’s diets [24,25,26]. In Xinjiang, the second millennium BC roughly coincides with the Bronze Age. This period was characterized by a growing use of crops, such as millet, wheat, and barley; the development of crafts, such as metallurgy and pottery; and increasing population movements [27,28,29,30]. Archaeological evidence points to the augmentation of cultural exchange between Xinjiang and its surrounding regions since the Bronze Age [31]. These interactions were crucial for the dispersal of crops, with Xinjiang becoming a key area for the spread of millet, especially the broomcorn variant, according to the results of genetic analyses [32,33,34]. During the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), the Xinjiang region fell under the control of the Han Empire and the Silk Road trade network was established. This meant further expansion and intensification of the exchange between Eastern and Western cultures, with millet remaining a prevalent component of people’s diets [35,36].
The rich abundance of early crop remains discovered in Central Asia and Xinjiang has been used to explore the relationship between crops, agriculture, and pastoralism and to outline broad schemes of bidirectional crop expansion across the Eurasian continent [19,37]. While barley and wheat from Xinjiang have received considerable attention [38,39,40,41,42], the spread, chronology, and cultural context of millet remain under investigated. Against the backdrop of the growing number of data from Xinjiang, this paper presents the latest findings on millet in Xinjiang and investigates its potential entry routes and expansion from the third millennium BC to the 10th century AD. In addition, on the basis of archaeobotanical and isotopic datasets, this article explores the utilization and cultural significance of millet in Xinjiang across time.

2. Materials and Methods

This paper presents a comprehensive review of published archaeobotanical and stable isotopic studies in Xinjiang and investigates the recent discoveries of foxtail millet and broomcorn millet remains, along with their new radiocarbon dating results. The data were obtained from 60 sites, including dwellings and cemeteries where millet remains were found or for which carbon isotope values supporting millet consumption are available (Table 1and Table S1, Figure 1).
The new millet remains reported in this study were recovered from eight sites in the Tianshan Mountains (Table 1). Millet remains from the Wupu cemetery were sampled from the excavation storage of the Xinjiang Institution of Archaeology and Cultural Relics (Urumqi). Grains from the remaining seven sites (Wumachang, Yanbulake, Kuola, Kalaya, Kuiyukexiehai’er, Aisikexiaernan, and Lafuqueke) were sampled by the flotation of soil samples during archaeological investigations and excavations (sieve size: 0.2 mm). The sampling contexts included burial offerings, the mudbricks of tombs, and deposits of dwellings. The identification, photography, and measurement of plant remains were conducted in the Laboratory of Archaeobotany, the School of Cultural Heritage, Northwestern University, China, using a Nikon SMZ25 microscope. Seven millet samples from four sites (Wupu, Kalaya, Wumachang, and Kuiyukexiehai’er) were selected for radiocarbon dating. Sufficient quantities of recovered millet allowed six samples to be directly dated, while in one instance (Wumachang) a mixed sample of millet and barley was used for radiocarbon dating. For another four sites (Yanbulake, Kuola, Aisikexiaernan, and Lafuqueke), the dates obtained from other crops’ radiocarbon analyses or cited published data were used (Table 1). The samples were processed and dated by Beta Analytic (Miami, FL, USA) and calibrated using Oxcal 4.4 [53] with the calibration curve InCal 20 [54] (Table 1). The analysis of the data was carried out using R 4.3.0 and JMP 17.1 statistical software, considering the relationship among several variables, such as radiocarbon dates, isotopic values, altitude, latitude, and longitude.
Agronomy 13 01802 g001 550
Figure 1. (a) The distribution of the sites relevant to millet in Phase 1 and Phase 2 in Xinjiang: 1: Ayituohan; 2: Tongtiandong; 3: Xiaohe; 4: Xintala; 5: Tianshanbeilu; 6: Keriya North; 7: Saensayi; 8: Kalasu (Ili); 9: Goukou; 10: Adunqiaolu; 11: Liushugou; 12: Xiabandi. (b) Map of the study area. The red arrows I, II, and III represent the potential routes of millet expansion. Area A is the Hexi Corridor, where millet remains have been found that date from the sixth millennium BC to the third millennium BC. Area B is the Dzhungar Mountain region, which includes the millet-related sites of Dali, Begash, and Tasbas, the remains from which date to the third millennium BC. Area C is the Kashmir region, with the Pethpuran Teng site, where third-millennium-BC broomcorn millet was recovered. The base map was sourced from Natural Earth (https://www.naturalearthdata.com/, accessed on 2 May 2023).
Figure 1. (a) The distribution of the sites relevant to millet in Phase 1 and Phase 2 in Xinjiang: 1: Ayituohan; 2: Tongtiandong; 3: Xiaohe; 4: Xintala; 5: Tianshanbeilu; 6: Keriya North; 7: Saensayi; 8: Kalasu (Ili); 9: Goukou; 10: Adunqiaolu; 11: Liushugou; 12: Xiabandi. (b) Map of the study area. The red arrows I, II, and III represent the potential routes of millet expansion. Area A is the Hexi Corridor, where millet remains have been found that date from the sixth millennium BC to the third millennium BC. Area B is the Dzhungar Mountain region, which includes the millet-related sites of Dali, Begash, and Tasbas, the remains from which date to the third millennium BC. Area C is the Kashmir region, with the Pethpuran Teng site, where third-millennium-BC broomcorn millet was recovered. The base map was sourced from Natural Earth (https://www.naturalearthdata.com/, accessed on 2 May 2023).
Agronomy 13 01802 g001

3. Results

Broomcorn and foxtail millet remains were recovered by flotation from the eight sites (Table 2, Figures S1–S5 in Supplementary Materials S2). The preservation of the grains has been observed in two forms, desiccated and carbonized, according to the different environments (mountain steppes and oases, respectively) in which they were found. Desiccated remains exhibit better preservation, allowing for the identification of various parts, such as inflorescences, panicles, florets, husks, and leaves (Figure 2 and Figure 3). Carbonized remains primarily consist of caryopses (Figure 2 and Figure 3). Table 2 provides detailed information on the excavation contexts, types, and quantities of millet remains.
Table
Table 2. The millet remains included in this study.
Table 2. The millet remains included in this study.
SiteContextTotal SamplesTotal Volume (L)FMBM
WumachangDw112(1): 5 Carbonized seedsN/A
YanbulakeDw mudbrick12(1): 1 Desiccated floret(1): 1 Desiccated floret
KuolaDw323N/A(1): 1 Carbonized seed
WupuT offering7N/A(3): 6 Desiccated inflorescences(2): 1 Caked mass of florets, 6 Desiccated panicles
KalayaT mudbrick21.5N/A(1): 31 Desiccated florets,135 Desiccated husk fragments, 11 Desiccated leaf fragments
Kuiyukexiehai’erDw20258(4): 14 Carbonized seeds(14): 223 Carbonized seeds, 285 Desiccated floret fragments
AisikexiaernanDw32.5N/A(2): 1 Desiccated floret, 8 Desiccated lemmas
LafuquekeCity311.5N/A(3): 61 Desiccated florets, 223 Desiccated lemmas
FM = foxtail millet, BM = broomcorn millet, T = tomb, Dw = dwelling, C = carbonized, D = desiccated. The numbers of samples with FM/BM are in parentheses.
Agronomy 13 01802 g002 550
Figure 2. Examples of carbonized and desiccated broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) recovered from sites in Xinjiang: (a) carbonized seed from Kuola, ventral side; (b) desiccated floret from Yanbulake, ventral and dorsal sides; (c) desiccated floret from Wupu, ventral and dorsal side; (d) carbonized seed from Kuiyukexiehai’er, ventral side; (e) desiccated leaf from Kalaya; (f) desiccated leaf from Wupu; (g) desiccated husks from Kuiyukexiehai’er; (h) desiccated florets from Kalaya; (i) desiccated panicle from Wupu; (j) desiccated florets from Lafuqueke. Scale bars: (a–g,j) 1 mm; (h) 5 mm; (i) 10 cm.
Figure 2. Examples of carbonized and desiccated broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) recovered from sites in Xinjiang: (a) carbonized seed from Kuola, ventral side; (b) desiccated floret from Yanbulake, ventral and dorsal sides; (c) desiccated floret from Wupu, ventral and dorsal side; (d) carbonized seed from Kuiyukexiehai’er, ventral side; (e) desiccated leaf from Kalaya; (f) desiccated leaf from Wupu; (g) desiccated husks from Kuiyukexiehai’er; (h) desiccated florets from Kalaya; (i) desiccated panicle from Wupu; (j) desiccated florets from Lafuqueke. Scale bars: (a–g,j) 1 mm; (h) 5 mm; (i) 10 cm.
Agronomy 13 01802 g002
Agronomy 13 01802 g003 550
Figure 3. Examples of carbonized and desiccated foxtail millet (Setaria italica) recovered from sites in Xinjiang: (a) carbonized seed from Wumachang, ventral side; (b) desiccated floret from Yanbulake, dorsal and ventral sides; (c) desiccated inflorescence from Wupu; (d) desiccated floret from Wupu, ventral and dorsal sides; (e) carbonized seeds from Kuiyukexiehaier, ventral side. Scale bars: (a,b,d,e) 1 mm; (c) 3 cm.
Figure 3. Examples of carbonized and desiccated foxtail millet (Setaria italica) recovered from sites in Xinjiang: (a) carbonized seed from Wumachang, ventral side; (b) desiccated floret from Yanbulake, dorsal and ventral sides; (c) desiccated inflorescence from Wupu; (d) desiccated floret from Wupu, ventral and dorsal sides; (e) carbonized seeds from Kuiyukexiehaier, ventral side. Scale bars: (a,b,d,e) 1 mm; (c) 3 cm.
Agronomy 13 01802 g003
The radiocarbon dating results are presented in Table 1. The calibrated dates are concentrated in the period from the end of the second millennium BC to the first millennium BC (Table 1), with one additional sample from the Tang Dynasty site of Lafuqueke dating to the 6th–7th centuries AD. Table 1 also includes published radiocarbon dates for millet in Xinjiang. Direct dating results show that millet appeared in Xinjiang not earlier than 2500 BC, which is approximately 500 years later than the earliest millet found in the western part of the Hexi Corridor in Gansu, China (2800–2600 BC) [8] (Figure 1). The dates of the samples from Xinjiang are also later than those from the Central Asian sites of Begash [55] (Figure 1) and Pethpuran Teng [11] (Figure 1).
The sites where millet grains were found or for which isotopic data signaling C4-derived food consumption are available were classified into five phases, from the earliest to the latest, according to their calibrated 14C dates (Table S1 in Supplementary Materials S1) [22,23,24,25,26,43,44,46,49,51,52,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125]. Phase 1 (before 2000 BC) is represented by the sites of Tongtiandong, Xintala, and Xiaohe, all of which held millet grains. The Ayituohan cemetery (2800–2500 BC), where C4 signals associated with millet consumption were identified in the diet of the deceased, is also included in this early phase [24]. Phase 2 coincides with the Bronze Age (2000–1500 BC). Eight sites, which represent the eastward expansion of the Andronovo archaeological complex and the westward movements of “the painted pottery cultures” into Xinjiang [31], contained evidence of millet. During Phase 3 (1500–800 BC), which coincides with the Late Bronze Age, the number of sites providing evidence of millet increased. In Phase 4 (Iron Age, after 800 BC), iron artifacts were widely discovered in Xinjiang [126], and millet-related sites remained prevalent. From the second century BC (Phase 5), Xinjiang fell under the control of the Han Empire. The establishment of a stable Silk Road trade network and increasing population movements contributed to a further increase in the number of millet-related sites, which remained high throughout the following eight centuries.
This study employed newly discovered millet remains and associated data to investigate the correlations among the chronology, latitude, longitude, and altitude of the excavated sites listed in the Supplementary Materials S1 (Table S1). The results are presented in Table 3 and Figure 4. The analysis results revealed that the correlation between chronology and latitude (p = 0.0498, r = −0.25) is more statistically significant than that between date and longitude (p = 0.3424, r = −0.12). A strong correlation was observed between altitude and both date (p = 0.0483, r = −0.25) and longitude (p = 0.0001, r = −0.47—representing the naturally geographical landscape in Xinjiang), while the correlation with latitude appears to be relatively weak (p = 0.1480, r = −0.18). The significant positive correlation between latitude and longitude (p = 0.0007, r = −0.42) suggests that sites in the eastern region are situated at higher latitudes. The interaction effect of latitude and longitude on date is not significant (p = 0.3614, F = 0.84). The distribution of millet sites according to latitude, longitude, and altitude in each phase is illustrated in Figure 5a. The diachronic distribution of millet-related sites in mountain and oasis regions is represented in Figure 5b and shows an increase in the number of millet-related site in the oases over time. The relationships among stable carbon isotopic values of human collagen, chronology, and altitude are illustrated in Figure 6. These results will be explained and discussed in the following section.

4. Discussion

4.1. Potential Routes of Entry to Xinjiang

The cultivation and utilization of the Asian millets in Eastern Eurasia seem to have begun in the semi-arid regions of Northern China. To date, the most compelling archaeobotanical and isotopic evidence for the westward spread of millet has been found in the Hexi Corridor in Gansu, dating from the 6th millennium BC to the third millennium BC [8,127,128]. The other eastern regions that border Xinjiang include the Mongolian Plateau and the Minusinsk Basin (Southern Siberia) (Figure 1). In the Mongolian Plateau, millet remains have been discovered in Inner Mongolia, China, dating back to the Neolithic period (at least the 6th millennium BC) [129]. However, it is only in the Iron Age that carbonized millet appears in the plateau region closer to Xinjiang, alongside signals of C4 food consumption in human isotopic values [16,130]. Isotopic evidence from the Minusinsk Basin has highlighted some possible millet consumption in the middle of the second millennium BC but points to a fairly regular intake of this crop during the Iron Age [13,131]. Evidence of millet from the northern border of Xinjiang dates approximately 1000 years earlier than that from the Minusinsk Basin [24].
In light of this evidence, the hypothesis proposed by this study is that there were three potential routes for the dispersal of millet into Xinjiang during the third millennium BC (Figure 1). Following Route I, millet would have entered eastern Xinjiang directly from the Hexi Corridor, rapidly spreading westward along the Tianshan Mountains to western Xinjiang. This pathway largely aligns with the concept of the “Isotope Millet Road” proposed by Wang et al. [25].
Route II links the Hexi Corridor and the Altai Mountains. Millet would have first reached the oases near Juyanze through the north–south river valleys of the Heishui and Ruoshui in the Hexi Corridor before proceeding to the Altai Mountains in the northwest (Figure 1). This hypothesis is supported by the earliest findings of millet in Ayituohan (c. 2800 BC) [24] and Tongtiandong (c. 2200 BC) [22] in northern Xinjiang, as well as the relatively favorable conditions for millet cultivation identified around the Juyanze paleolake in the late third millennium BC [132]. Our analysis has revealed a statistically significant positive correlation between the latitude and longitude of millet-related sites (Table 3). This indicates the presence of sites falling within the upper-right 95% confidence interval for the regression, which coincides with the northeastern region of Xinjiang and its surroundings (Figure 4). However, further archaeological evidence from the Juyanze paleolake and the surrounding regions is needed to firmly support the existence of Route II. The datings of the sites of Ayituohan [24] and Tongtiandong [22], in the northern area of the second route, largely overlap with those of several sites located in the Dzhungar Mountains near Route I (area B in Figure 1), such as Dali (c.2700 BC) and Begash (c.2300 BC) [17,55]. The connection between the Dzhungar Mountains (area B in Figure 1) and the Altai Mountains through one sub-ridge of the former (Figure 1) opens the possibility for a link between Routes I and II, which, in turn, would indicate a potential spread of millet by the end of the third millennium BC.
The third route, referred to as Route III in Figure 1, is currently only a geographical possibility for a southern pathway formed through the Pamir Mountains and the oasis belt in the foothills of the Kunlun Mountains. This speculation arises from the discovery of early carbonized broomcorn millets at the Pethpuran Teng site in Kashmir which have been directly dated to 2500 BC [11]. These findings predate the surrounding early millet sites in Xinjiang, such as the Xiaohe Cemetery and Keriya River North Cemetery in the central Tarim Basin, which have been dated at around 2000 BC (Table 1, Table S1). Considering the geographical isolation of this region from Routes I and II, it is assumed that there might be an independent pathway from Western China to Kashmir. However, further and sufficiently early evidence is needed to support the existence of Route III.

4.2. Millet Expansion in Xinjiang

The analysis of millet distribution across the mountain and oasis landscapes of Xinjiang (Figure 5b) shows a gradual and widespread dispersal since the Bronze Age (Phases 1–3). During Phase 4, millet cultivation extended to the oases located in the southern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains at a lower altitude (<1500 m) (Figure 5b, Table S1). During the same phase, millet-related sites appeared in the high mountain valleys of the northern Tianshan Mountains (>1800 m) (Table S1, Figure S4 in Supplementary Materials S2). This pattern of distribution reflects an increasing mobility associated with pastoralism [133] and resonates with the intensified cultivation of cereals that are stress-resistant and fast-growing, such as barley and broomcorn millet [133,134].
The analysis results presented in Figure 4 and Table 3 highlight a stronger correlation between date and latitude than between date and longitude. The significant negative correlation between date and altitude observed in Figure 4 indicates a marked north–south pattern of millet dispersal in Xinjiang. Furthermore, the distribution of site points for the general movement of millet shows a trend towards lower latitudes and altitudes over time (Figure 5).
The relatively weak correlation between date and longitude, along with the insignificant interaction effect of latitude and longitude on date (p = 0.3614) (Table 3), suggests that millet spread in multiple directions, rather than simply from east to west. Figure 1 and Figures S1 and S2 show that millet spread to the Tianshan Mountains in the central region of Xinjiang from Phase 1 to Phase 2, with a subsequent concentration of millet-related sites in the Tianshan Mountain area in Phase 3. This pattern is further highlighted by the clear concentration of sites at 42–44 degrees of latitude, as can be observed in Figure 5. With respect to longitude, Phase 1 millet-related sites were mostly located at 86–88 degrees east longitude, but from 2000 BC the occupation area expanded to the eastern and western regions of Xinjiang (Figure 5a Longitude). Millet-related sites continued to proliferate across the Tianshan Mountains until the medieval period.
In the Early Iron Age (Phase 4), millet spread across nearly all habitable altitudes, likely following the movement of herders. As the Han Empire and subsequent political authorities gained control over the “Western Regions” and the Silk Road(s) was established, Xinjiang experienced an influx of new immigrants and witnessed a proliferation of agricultural garrisons (Tun Tian). With the exception of a limited number of military garrisons in mountain passes, settlements predominantly concentrated in agricultural oases at lower altitudes [35,135] (Figure 5 and Figure S5).
Human carbon isotope data from the published studies listed in Table S2 were plotted to explore the relationship between δ13C values, time, and altitude (Figure 6) [24,25,26,35,56,58,63,66,67,68,72,76,79,80,81,84,88,93,94,97,105,107,108,111,116,136,137,138,139]. The analyzed individuals in Phase 1 (third millennium BC) were from piedmont areas and oases situated in basins at altitudes ranging from 500 to 1500 m. It appears that their diets already included a combination of C3 and C4 plants. In Phases 2 and 3, populations associated with the Andronovo culture complex and the painted-pottery cultures migrated into Xinjiang [31]. In Figure 6, two distinct groups of individuals in Phases 2 and 3 can be observed: populations from low-altitude areas displayed a diet richer in C4 (shown in red), while high-altitude mountain inhabitants predominantly followed a C3-based diet (shown in blue). In Phase 4 (Early Iron Age), the boundaries between these two groups began to blur, with carbon isotope values of populations from high-altitude regions showing C4 signals. This could be attributed to the development of pastoral subsistence practices, which involved seasonal movements of herders between various altitudes, as well as frequent interactions of populations from diverse ecotopes and regions [140,141,142,143]. These interactions likely promoted and facilitated the dispersal of millet on a larger scale. Following the Han Empire’s control over Xinjiang and the establishment of trade networks and agricultural garrisons, the isotopic values of individuals from lower-elevation oases increasingly indicate a C3-C4 mixed diet, with much less variation than in previous phases.
Archaeological datasets and relevant discussions have showcased the dynamic character and complexity of millet dispersal in Xinjiang. The diverse landscape of Xinjiang, including a complex combination of piedmonts, valleys, and oases, offers a variety of possibilities for the diffusion of millet. It is also plausible that the main routes of millet dispersal were interconnected through smaller herding routes used for short-distance exchanges between pastoralists. The identification of these minor routes is, however, usually very challenging archaeologically [144]. While this study has provided a preliminary outline of potential expansion routes for millet, further spatial and temporal data should be integrated once they become available in order to reach a more comprehensive understanding of crop dispersal in Xinjiang. Further approaches, such as least-cost path modeling, will also be applied.

4.3. Earlier Broomcorn and Later Foxtail?

In the Bronze Age, foxtail millet and broomcorn millet became essential crops in Xinjiang, along with barley and wheat [30]. When our chronological data were evaluated in combination with previously published research results, some important differences came to light between the two millet variants in terms of abundance and chronology. First, the results of archaeobotanical studies have revealed a relatively great abundance of sites in which broomcorn millets have been discovered, while sites containing foxtail millet are comparatively fewer (Table 1). While it is possible that recovery and preservation bias may have affected the different frequencies of the two grains to some extent, broomcorn millet seems to have been used more consistently than its foxtail counterpart. Second, the direct radiocarbon dates show a gap, with broomcorn millet predating foxtail millet by several centuries. We directly radiocarbon-dated two foxtail millet samples from Wumachang and Kuiyukexiehai’er and the results spanned from 1000 to 500 BC (Table 1). The earliest directly dated evidence of broomcorn millet in Xinjiang is from the Tongtiandong site and dates back to the end of the third millennium BC [22]. Foxtail millet was also found at the site, but its direct radiocarbon date is unavailable. As the chronological range of the Bronze Age phase in Tongtiandong spans nearly 2000 years [22], foxtail millet recovered therein could potentially date as late as the second millennium BC. Radiocarbon dates available for Adunqiaolu place the site at around the middle of the second millennium BC. The absence of surface disturbance suggests that the age of the foxtail millet assemblage recovered at Adunqiaolu could align with the radiocarbon date available for barley remains found at the site (around 1500 BC) [23,145]. This would make the Adunqiaolu millet assemblage the earliest recovered to date in Xinjiang. Broomcorn millet, however, would still predate foxtail millet by several centuries.
In Central Asia, the earliest, most secure age for foxtail millet is around 1000 BC [10,146,147]. In spite of the considerable quantity of grains unearthed from various sites dating to this period, the appearance of foxtail millet is significantly later than that of broomcorn millet [10,146,147]. Looking at the broader Eurasian context, it has been observed that broomcorn millet spread more rapidly than foxtail millet, reaching the northern coast of Iran’s Caspian Sea as early as 2000 BC [148]. Foxtail millet appeared in Western Asia only around 1500 BC [4,149].
The chronological difference identified between the spread of broomcorn millet and foxtail millet can be explained by the greater suitability of the former to the environment and lifeways of the Eurasian Steppe [37]. In particular, it has been argued that, owing to its higher cold tolerance and faster growing speed, broomcorn millet was more suitable for the needs of pastoralists given the cooler climate of the mountain steppes and could be better accommodated to pastoralists’ herding and cultivation schedules [37,134]. In addition, cultural preferences could have played a significant role in the timing of the dispersal of different crops. Not only distinct culinary traditions [150], but also culturally-driven variation in millet use in different regions, may have encouraged or limited its diffusion. Among the foxtail millet samples from Xinjiang examined in this study (n = 4), only one (from Wupu) was recovered from a burial context. Of the 17 millet assemblages published in previous studies, only 3 were found in funerary contexts, in Chawuhu, Shengjindian, and Astana (Table S1). The remaining samples were discovered in dwelling contexts or as tempers in mudbricks. By contrast, the investigation of 33 contexts, including broomcorn millet, has revealed that this crop was used as a tomb offering in 14 different cemeteries (Table S1). Two potential explanations can account for this phenomenon. The first considers preservation and recovery bias, which may have affected the frequency of the recovered millet grains. The smaller size and comparatively lower preservation rate of foxtail millet caryopsis make its recovery and identification more challenging in comparison to broomcorn millet [10]. This can potentially lead to millet being underrepresented in archaeological sites. The second explanation considers the possibility of different uses of the two crops. Foxtail millet seems to have been consumed daily as food, with its by-products also being utilized as tempers. By contrast, broomcorn millet appears to have been used in burial ceremonies, in addition to being a staple food for daily consumption. Among the assemblages examined in this study, over half were from burial contexts (Table S1). A similar association between wheat and burial rituals has been observed in other sites of Central Asia dating to the Bronze Age [151]. Cultural preferences could therefore have influenced the pace of crop dispersal and distribution.
The coexistence of broomcorn and foxtail millets in the late Harappan site in the Indus Valley (second millennium BC) [4,152] opens the possibility that earlier evidence of millet remains may yet be discovered along potential routes from Western China and Central Asia to South Asia dating before 2000 BC. Alternative routes running through the eastern Tibetan Plateau and Yunnan in Southwestern China could also have played a role in the dispersal of millet [153,154]. Further and more comprehensive archaeobotanical investigations and reliable AMS dating are needed for a robust understanding of the respective trajectories of the two millet types in Xinjiang and beyond.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agronomy13071802/s1, Table S1: The information of the sites unearthed millet remains or detected C4 signals in the carbon isotope analyses; Table S2: The resource of isotope results in the Figure 6 of this paper; Figure S1: The millet sites in Phase 1 (3000–2000 BC); Figure S2: The millet sites in Phase 2 (2000–1500 BC); Figure S3: The millet sites in Phase 3 (1500–800 BC); Figure S4: The millet sites in Phase 4 (800 BC- Han Dynasty, 2nd Century BC); Figure S5: The millet sites in Phase 5 (Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty, 2nd Century BC to 10th Century AD).

Author Contributions

D.T. and J.L. contributed equally to this work. Conceptualization, D.T. and J.L.; formal analysis, D.T. and J.L.; project administration, D.T., Z.D. and Y.W.; Investigation, D.T., Z.D., X.Z., C.L., Y.X. and Y.W.; Resources, D.T., Z.D., X.Z., C.L., Y.X. and Y.W. Writing—original draft preparation, D.T. and J.L.; writing—review and editing, D.T., J.L., Z.D. and Y.W.; Visualization, J.L.; Funding Acquisition, D.T., Z.D., X.Z. and Y.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The publication of this research was supported by the 111 Project (D18004) and the National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFE0203800). The fieldwork and lab work of this research were funded by the National Social Science Foundation of China (19CKG031).

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in the Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

We thank Marcella Festa from Northwest University for providing comments and language editing on manuscript, Yuqi Li from Nankai University, Ruochong Zhao from the Chinese Academy of Social Science, and Bangrui Wen from Nanjing University for helping to collect flotation samples in the Tianshan Mountains. One of the first authors, Duo Tian, is a member of “The Youth Innovation Team of Shaanxi Universities”. We are also grateful to the two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 4. Pairwise scatterplot matrix with regression lines and correlation coefficients for earliest inferred date (year), latitude (degree), longitude (degree), and altitude (meters) of millet.
Figure 4. Pairwise scatterplot matrix with regression lines and correlation coefficients for earliest inferred date (year), latitude (degree), longitude (degree), and altitude (meters) of millet.
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Figure 5. Distribution and percentage of millet sites in each phase. (a) Grouped violin plot with scatters and fitted lines showing the distribution of latitude (degree), longitude (degree), and altitude (meters). The violin plots show the probability density of the data. The smooth fitted lines display the trends of data from Phases 1 to 5. (b) Stacked bar plot showing the percentages of millet sites in mountain and oasis regions for each phase.
Figure 5. Distribution and percentage of millet sites in each phase. (a) Grouped violin plot with scatters and fitted lines showing the distribution of latitude (degree), longitude (degree), and altitude (meters). The violin plots show the probability density of the data. The smooth fitted lines display the trends of data from Phases 1 to 5. (b) Stacked bar plot showing the percentages of millet sites in mountain and oasis regions for each phase.
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Figure 6. Distribution of human stable carbon isotope values by phase, colored by altitude (in meters).
Figure 6. Distribution of human stable carbon isotope values by phase, colored by altitude (in meters).
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Table
Table 1. The macro-fossil evidence of millet in Xinjiang and direct radiocarbon dates.
Table 1. The macro-fossil evidence of millet in Xinjiang and direct radiocarbon dates.
Site FM BM Type Context Lab No. Dating Materials Radiocarbon Dates Calibrated Dates 2ϭ Reference
Wumachang x CDwBeta-628340FM and barley seeds2810 ± 301050–849 BCThis study
Yanbulake xxDDw mudbrickBeta-547359Barley rachis2780 ± 301007–835 BC
Kuola xCDwBeta-497980Barley seeds2650 ± 30897–781 BC
Wupu xxDT offeringBeta-497983FM seeds2490 ± 30775–486 BC
T offeringBeta-516613BM seeds2520 ± 30789–544 BC
Kalaya xDT mudbrickBeta-547356BM florets2430 ± 30750–404 BC
Kuiyukexiehai’er xxCDwBeta-628344BM seeds2530 ± 30794–544 BC
DwBeta-628345FM and BM seeds2490 ± 30775–486 BC
xDDwBeta-628342BM florets2260 ± 30395–206 BC
Aisikexiaernan xDDwBA110464Reed2435 ± 30751–406 BCThis study; [43]
Lafuqueke xDCityLZU21376Human bone1460 ± 20574–645 ADThis study; [44]
Tongtiandong xCDwBeta-527175BM seeds3700 ± 302199–1980 BC[22]
DwBeta-527174BM seeds3270 ± 301616–1456 BC
Xiaohe xDT offeringBA05793BM seeds3240 ± 401612–1428 BC[45,46]
BA05795BM seeds3200 ± 401538–1400 BC[39]
BA05796BM seeds3290 ± 401677–1452 BC
BA05804BM seeds3545 ± 402016–1750 BC
Xintala
(Aisentuoleha) 		???DwWB82-29Millet?3385 ± 1001933–1451 BC[47,48]
Yanghai xDT offeringUBA-21943BM seeds2446 ± 35754–409 BC[49]
Shengjindian xDT offeringUBA-21941BM seeds2091 ± 29194 BC–2 AD[50]
UBA-21942BM seeds2004 ± 2951 BC–113 AD
Yingpan DT offeringUBA-21945BM seeds1844 ± 32121–315 AD[51]
Miran x DDwBeta-523852FM seeds1220 ± 30685–890 AD[52]
Beta-523853FM seeds1200 ± 30705–950 AD
Beta-523854FM seeds1210 ± 30685–940 AD
FM = foxtail millet, BM = broomcorn millet, T = tomb, Dw = dwelling, C = carbonized, D = desiccated.
Table
Table 3. Multivariate analysis of correlations for earliest date, latitude, longitude, and elevation.
Table 3. Multivariate analysis of correlations for earliest date, latitude, longitude, and elevation.
Variable 1Variable 2rF-Ratiop-Value
Earliest inferred dateLatitude−0.24834.00660.0498 *
Earliest inferred dateLongitude0.12160.91560.3424
Earliest inferred dateAltitude−0.24984.06120.0483 *
LatitudeLongitude0.418012.9110.0007 **
LatitudeAltitude−0.18442.14740.1480
LongitudeAltitude−0.469817.2770.0001 **
Earliest inferred dateAltitude × Longitude 0.84260.3614
Notes: * Significant at a 0.05 probability level; ** significant at a 0.01 probability level.
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Tian, D.; Li, J.; Wang, Y.; Dang, Z.; Zhang, X.; Li, C.; Xu, Y. Unveiling the Dynamics of Millet Spread into Xinjiang: New Evidence of the Timing, Pathways, and Cultural Background. Agronomy 2023, 13, 1802. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13071802

AMA Style

Tian D, Li J, Wang Y, Dang Z, Zhang X, Li C, Xu Y. Unveiling the Dynamics of Millet Spread into Xinjiang: New Evidence of the Timing, Pathways, and Cultural Background. Agronomy. 2023; 13(7):1802. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13071802

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tian, Duo, Jingbo Li, Yongqiang Wang, Zhihao Dang, Xiangpeng Zhang, Chunchang Li, and Youcheng Xu. 2023. "Unveiling the Dynamics of Millet Spread into Xinjiang: New Evidence of the Timing, Pathways, and Cultural Background" Agronomy 13, no. 7: 1802. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13071802

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