Effect of Ecotype and Environment on Oil Content, Fatty Acid, and Sterol Composition of Seed, Kernel, and Epicarp of the Atlas Pistachio
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Materials
2.2. Biochemical Analyses
2.2.1. Oil Extraction
2.2.2. Fatty Acid Composition of the Different Parts of the Seed
2.2.3. Oxidizability Value (Cox)
2.2.4. Extraction and Determination of Phytosterols
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Oil Content
3.2. Fatty Acid Composition and Oxidizability Value (Cox)
3.3. Data Analysis by Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
3.4. Determination of Phytosterols
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Location | Annual Parameters | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rainfall (mm) | Temperature (°C) | |||||||
Mean | Min | Max | ||||||
2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | |
Bechar (A) | 72 | 111 | 22.1 | 22.3 | 15.5 | 15.2 | 28.3 | 28.9 |
Batna (B) | 341 | 210 | 15.4 | 16 | 7.8 | 8.3 | 23.2 | 24.1 |
Djelfa (D) | 279 | 185 | 15.1 | 15.4 | 8.9 | 9.7 | 21.2 | 21.2 |
Fatty Acid (%) Seed | Bechar | Batna | Djelfa | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | F-Test | |
Oil content (%) | 47.8 d | 37.47 ± 2.02 c | 32 b | - | 40.1 a | 40.4 ± 2.16 a | 55.81 *** |
Saturated fatty acid (SFA) | |||||||
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) | 20.36 ± 0.04 b | 22.87 ± 0.21 b | 23.25 ± 0.06 b | - | 24.01 ± 0.08 a | 26.65 ± 0.74 a | 128.66 *** |
C18:0 (Stearic acid) | 2.26 ± 0.01 a | 1.71 ± 0.01 b | 1.68 ± 0.01 b | - | 1.8 ± 0.01 b | 2.07 ± 0.02 a | 1489.9 *** |
C20:0 (Arachidic acid) | 0.16 ± 0.01 a | 0.09 ± 0.08 a | 0.14 ± 0.01 a | - | 0.15 a | 0.06 ± 0.11 a | 1.5 ns |
Total SFA | 22.78 ± 0.06 c | 24.67 ± 0.29 b | 25.08 ± 0.08 b | - | 25.96 ± 0.09 b | 28.79 ± 0.86 a | 101.01 *** |
Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) | |||||||
C16:1n7 (Palmitoleic acid) | 0.78 ± 0.01 e | 1.17 ± 0.02 b | 0.85 d | - | 1.99 ± 0.02 a | 0.98 c | 7274.4 *** |
C18:1n9 (Oleic acid) | 52.03 ± 0.06 a | 47.66 ± 0.14 b | 43.29 ± 0.08 c | - | 37.35 ± 0.16 e | 40.94 ± 0.17 d | 5846 *** |
C18:1n7 (Vaccenic acid) | 1.15 ± 0.01 d | 1.48 ± 0.01 b | 1.04 ± 0.01 e | - | 1.77 ± 0.01 a | 1.21 ± 0.03 c | 1413.1 *** |
C20:1n9 (Eicosenoic acid) | 0.26 ± 0.01 a | 0.19 ± 0.02 bc | 0.13 ± 0.01 d | - | 0.17 ± 0.03 c | 0.21 ± 0.02 b | 23.72 *** |
Total MUFA | 54.22 ± 0.08 a | 50.51 ± 0.18 b | 45.31 ± 0.11 c | - | 41.29 ± 0.21 e | 43.43 ± 0.21 d | 4585 *** |
Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) | |||||||
C18:2n6 (Linoleic acid) | 22.30 ± 0.02 e | 23.92 d | 28.85 ± 0.06 b | - | 31.14 ± 0.16 a | 26.78 ± 0.66 c | 419.9 *** |
C18:3n3 (Linolenic acid) | 0.71 ± 0.01 e | 0.89 ± 0.01 c | 0.75 ± 0.01 d | - | 1.24 ± 0.02 a | 1.09 ± 0.01 b | 1037.5 *** |
Total PUFA | 23.01 ± 0.03 e | 24.81 ± 0.01 d | 29.61 ± 0.06 b | - | 32.38 ± 0.18 a | 27.87 ± 0.67 c | 447 *** |
Total MUFA + PUFA | 77.23 ± 0.11 a | 75.32 ± 0.19 b | 74.92 ± 0.17 b | - | 73.67 ± 0.39 c | 71.3 ± 0.88 d | 88.8 *** |
(MUFA + PUFA)/SFA | 3.39 | 3.05 | 2.99 | - | 2.84 | 2.48 | - |
PUFA/SFA | 1.01 | 1 | 1.18 | - | 1.24 | 0.96 | - |
Omega-9/Omega-6 | 2.33 a | 1.99 ± 0.01 b | 1.50 ± 0.01 d | - | 1.2 e | 1.53 ± 0.03 c | 2690 *** |
Omega-6/Omega-3 | 31.26 ± 0.27 b | 26.78 ± 0.35 c | 38.3 ± 0.28 a | - | 25.05 ± 0.31 d | 24.57 ± 0.62 d | 648.9 *** |
Cox value | 2.97 e | 3.13 d | 3.57 ± 0.01 b | - | 3.85 ± 0.02 a | 3.40 ± 0.07 c | 339.5 *** |
Fatty Acid (%) Kernel | Bechar | Batna | Djelfa | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | F-Test | |
Saturated fatty acid (SFA) | |||||||
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) | 14.44 ± 0.08 d | 17.18 ± 0.07 b | 15.60 ± 0.09 c | - | 15.59 ± 0.15 c | 18.07 ± 0.19 a | 396.4 *** |
C18:0 (Stearic acid) | 2.90 ± 0.02 a | 1.83 ± 0.01 e | 2.02 ± 0.01 d | - | 2.35 ± 0.02 c | 2.51 ± 0.03 b | 1652 *** |
C20:0 (Arachidic acid) | 0 | 0.13 | 0 | - | 0 | 0.20 | - |
Total SFA | 17.34 ± 0.10 e | 19.13 ± 0.07 b | 17.62 ± 0.10 d | - | 17.94 ± 0.17 c | 20.78 ± 0.22 a | 485.4 *** |
Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) | |||||||
C16:1n7 (Palmitoleic acid) | 0.54 ± 0.01 d | 0.86 b | 0.6 c | - | 0.91 ± 0.01 a | 0.59 ± 0.02 c | 1097 *** |
C18:1n9 (Oleic acid) | 52.88 ± 0.06 b | 50.41 ± 0.04 c | 53.22 ± 0.05 a | - | 48.86 ± 0.09 e | 46.88 ± 0.18 d | 2216 *** |
C18:1n7 (Vaccenic acid) | 0.98 ± 0.01 d | 1.34 ± 0.01 a | 0.95 ± 0.01 a | - | 1.15 ± 0.01 b | 0.99 ± 0.01 c | 1715 *** |
C20:1n9 (Eicosenoic acid) | 0 b | 0 b | 0.24 ± 0.01 a | - | 0 b | 0.26 ± 0.03 a | 252.3 *** |
Total MUFA | 54.40 ± 0.07 b | 52.61 ± 0.05 c | 55 ± 0.06 a | - | 50.92 ± 0.1 d | 48.73 ± 0.24 e | 3233 *** |
Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) | |||||||
C18:2n6 (Linoleic acid) | 27.71 ± 0.05 c | 27.61 ± 0.06 d | 26.83 ± 0.03 e | - | 30.52 ± 0.04 a | 29.76 ± 0.05 b | 3593 *** |
C18:3n3 (Linolenic acid) | 0.56 ± 0.01 c | 0.64 ± 0.01 b | 0.52 ± 0.04 d | - | 0.62 ± 0.05 b | 0.73 ± 0.02 a | 22.33 *** |
Total PUFA | 28.27 ± 0.05 c | 28.25 ± 0.06 c | 27.35 ± 0.07 d | - | 31.14 ± 0.09 a | 30.49 ± 0.07 b | 2888 *** |
Total MUFA + PUFA | 82.67 ± 0.12 a | 80.86 ± 0.11 d | 82.35 ± 0.13 b | - | 82.06 ± 0.19 c | 79.22 ± 0.31 e | 486 *** |
(MUFA + PUFA)/SFA | 4.74 | 4.23 | 4.67 | - | 4.57 | 3.81 | - |
PUFA/SFA | 1.63 | 1.47 | 1.55 | - | 1.73 | 1.46 | - |
Omega-9/Omega-6 | 1.91 b | 1.83 c | 1.98 a | - | 1.60 d | 1.58 e | 7849 *** |
Omega-6/Omega-3 | 49.78 ± 0.43 a | 43.37 ± 0.31 b | 51.45 ± 3.9 a | - | 49.16 ± 3.85 a | 40.98 ± 1.22 b | 9.609 ** |
Cox Value | 3.50 ± 0.01 c | 3.49 ± 0.01 d | 3.41 ± 0.01 e | 3.77 ± 0.01 a | 3.69 b | 1079 *** |
Fatty Acid (%) Epicarp | Bechar | Batna | Djelfa | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | F-Test | |
Saturated fatty acid (SFA) | |||||||
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) | 28.05 ± 0.03 e | 30.21 ± 0.24 c | 29.27 ± 0.06 d | - | 31.50 ± 0.06 b | 34.81 ± 0.10 a | 994.2 *** |
C18:0 (Stearic acid) | 1.60 a | 1.61 ± 0.06 a | 1.32 ± 0.01 c | - | 1.48 ± 0.02 b | 1.69 ± 0.0 a | 73.03 *** |
Total SFA | 29.65 ± 0.03 e | 31.82 ± 0.30 c | 30.59 ± 0.06 d | - | 32.99 ± 0.07 b | 36.50 a | 1139 *** |
Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) | |||||||
C16:1n7 (Palmitoleic acid) | 1.09 ± 0.01 d | 1.45 ± 0.03 b | 1.08 d | - | 2.45 ± 0.02 a | 1.17 ± 0.02 c | 1905 *** |
C18:1n9 (Oleic acid) | 51.45 ± 0.01 a | 47.67 ± 0.04 b | 36.28 ± 0.03 d | - | 31.72 ± 0.12 e | 37.01 ± 0.08 c | 42,006 *** |
C18:1n7 (Vaccenic acid) | 1.43 c | 1.8 ± 0.04 b | 1.19 ± 0.01 d | - | 2.02 ± 0.01 a | 1.19 d | 1443 *** |
Total MUFA | 53.97 ± 0.02 a | 50.92 ± 0.11 b | 38.55 ± 0.03 d | - | 36.20 ± 0.16 e | 39.37 ± 0.1 c | 55,626 *** |
Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) | |||||||
C18:2n6 (Linoleic acid) | 15.57 ± 0.0 e | 17.27 ± 0.27 d | 29.96 ± 0.06 a | - | 29.36 ± 0.07 b | 23.0 ± 0.04 c | 8310 *** |
C18:3n3 (Linolenic acid) | 0.83 ± 0.03 d | 0 e | 0.89 ± 0.01 c | - | 1.46 ± 0.03 a | 1.12 ± 0.01 b | 2814 *** |
Total PUFA | 16.4 ± 0.03 d | 17.27 ± 0.27 c | 30.86 ± 0.07 a | - | 30.82 ± 0.09 a | 24.12 ± 0.05 b | 8691 *** |
Total MUFA + PUFA | 70.37 ± 0.05 a | 68.19 ± 0.38 c | 69.41 ± 0.1 b | - | 67.02 ± 0.25 d | 63.5 ± 0.15 e | 1078 *** |
(MUFA + PUFA)/SFA | 2.37 | 2.14 | 2.27 | - | 2.03 | 1.74 | - |
PUFA/SFA | 0.55 | 0.54 | 1 | - | 0.93 | 0.66 | - |
Omega-9/Omega-6 | 3.31 a | 2.76 ± 0.04 b | 1.21 d | - | 1.08 ± 0.01 e | 1.61 c | 8019 *** |
Omega-6/Omega-3 | 18.88 ± 0.57 c | - | 33.55 ± 0.49 a | - | 20.12 ± 0.32 b | 20.54 ± 0.15 b | 824.8 *** |
Cox Value | 2.30 ± 0.01 c | 2.26 ± 0.03 d | 3.64 a | - | 3.66 ± 0.01 a | 2.98 ± 0.01 b | 7157 *** |
Phytosterol Composition (mg/100 g) | Bechar | Batna | Djelfa | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 2016 | ||
Demethylphytosterols (DMS) | β-Sitosterol | 81.4 | 75.2 | 76.1 | - | 80.4 | 74.0 |
Campesterol | 9.9 | 4.2 | 4.1 | - | 8.4 | 3.5 | |
Stigmasterol | 3.0 | 2.0 | 2.1 | - | 5.0 | 3.6 | |
δ7−Avenasterol | 8.4 | 7.4 | 7.1 | - | 9.8 | 11.2 | |
Cholesterol | - | 0.5 | - | - | - | - | |
Total | 102.6 | 89.4 | 89.4 | - | 103.8 | 92.4 | |
Methylphytosterols (MS) | Citrostadienol | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.8 | - | 2.0 | 2.1 |
Total | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.8 | - | 2.0 | 2.1 | |
Dimethylphytosterols (DiMS) | Cycloartenol | 7.9 | 7.6 | 8.4 | - | 9.6 | 8.4 |
Methylene cycloartanol | 4.4 | 4.0 | 4.1 | - | 1.7 | 2.6 | |
Total | 12.3 | 11.6 | 12.4 | - | 11.3 | 10.9 | |
Total Phytosterols | 116.8 | 102.8 | 104.4 | - | 117.1 | 105.5 |
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Labdelli, A.; Tahirine, M.; Foughalia, A.; Zemour, K.; Cerny, M.; Adda, A.; Simon, V.; Merah, O. Effect of Ecotype and Environment on Oil Content, Fatty Acid, and Sterol Composition of Seed, Kernel, and Epicarp of the Atlas Pistachio. Agronomy 2022, 12, 3200. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12123200
Labdelli A, Tahirine M, Foughalia A, Zemour K, Cerny M, Adda A, Simon V, Merah O. Effect of Ecotype and Environment on Oil Content, Fatty Acid, and Sterol Composition of Seed, Kernel, and Epicarp of the Atlas Pistachio. Agronomy. 2022; 12(12):3200. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12123200
Chicago/Turabian StyleLabdelli, Amina, Mohammed Tahirine, Abdelhamid Foughalia, Kamel Zemour, Muriel Cerny, Ahmed Adda, Valérie Simon, and Othmane Merah. 2022. "Effect of Ecotype and Environment on Oil Content, Fatty Acid, and Sterol Composition of Seed, Kernel, and Epicarp of the Atlas Pistachio" Agronomy 12, no. 12: 3200. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12123200