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Communication

Growth, Leaf Pigment Content, and Antioxidant Potential of Ferns Grown in Peat Substrate Amended with Camelina Press Cake

by
Anna Pietrak
1,*,
Łukasz Łopusiewicz
2 and
Piotr Salachna
1
1
Department of Horticulture, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 71-459 Szczecin, Poland
2
Centre of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2022, 12(12), 3100; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12123100
Submission received: 9 November 2022 / Revised: 3 December 2022 / Accepted: 4 December 2022 / Published: 7 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Greenhouse Horticulture for Producing More With Less)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Using natural waste as a source of minerals and biostimulants can offer many advantages in the production of plants in containers. The research aimed to evaluate the usefulness of cakes obtained from the production of camelina seed oil (Camelina sativa) in the cultivation of ferns. The greenhouse experiment used ornamental ferns rich in health-promoting compounds: Onoclea sensibilis, Polypodium vulgare, and Polystichum polyblepharum. Plants were planted in pots filled with peat substrate mixed with camelina press cake in the form of pellets at a dose of 1 g/L or 5 g/L. Plants grown in 100% peat substrate constituted the control. It was found that the plants grown in the medium enriched with press cake were higher (P. vulgare and P. polyblepharum), wider (O. sensibilis and P. polyblepharum), and had increased dry weight (O. sensibilis and P. polyblepharum) regardless of the dose of the cake. Moreover, in all species, the addition of press cake significantly increased total chlorophyll content by 23.5–32.5% and carotenoids by 17.7–68.7% compared to the control. The effect of cake on the level of total polyphenols and flavonoids as well as antioxidant activity was unequal and depended mainly on the species and the waste dose. Overall, developing sustainable fern cultivation principles and understanding their nutritional properties could contribute to the broader use of ferns in green spaces, medicine, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

1. Introduction

There is still a search for cheap and environmentally safe sources of organic substances and plant nutrients [1]. Various types of waste are generated in the industrial production process [2]. Rational management requires treating waste materials and by-products from the industry as valuable raw materials that can be reused [3]. Such activities are part of the “circular economy” package, minimising waste storage and its maximum use [4]. The press cake is a by-product of the pressing of oil from oilseeds, the annual production of which globally amounts to approximately 25 million tonnes [5,6]. The press cake contains numerous valuable minerals and bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, proteins, and peptides [7,8]. The press cake can be used to produce animal feed mixtures, health-promoting food, medicines, and biofuels [9,10,11]. Few studies show that press cake can also be used in plant cultivation as a fertiliser and a source of substances that reduce the occurrence of nematodes [12,13,14]. The effect of adding press cake to the substrate on the growth and yielding of plants is ambiguous and depends to a large extent on the origin of the press cake and the dose [15,16].
For many years, there has been rapid production in containers of various perennials [17,18]. The demand for perennials causes the constant expansion of this group of ornamental plants [19,20]. Environmentally friendly cultivation methods are also intensively sought. Garden ferns are becoming more and more popular among producers and consumers [21]. Many are evergreen under temperate conditions and can be sold all year round. An obstacle in the popularisation of hardy ferns is the lack of sustainable technologies for their cultivation [22]. Therefore, research is needed to optimise fern production, considering more efficient and environmentally friendly use of resources.
Apart from their decorative qualities, some ferns are edible and medicinal plants with potentially broad applications [23,24]. Ferns are a valuable source of polysaccharides, proteins, vitamins, minerals and fibre, chlorophylls, carotenoids, polyphenols, flavonoids, and ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids, with favourable ratios [25]. The mentioned compounds are of particular interest due to their beneficial influence on human health, as they have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antitumor properties [26,27]. Dvorakova et al. [28], testing 24 species of ferns for the content of natural antioxidants, showed that Onoclea sensibilis L., Polystichum aculeatum (Forssk.) Woynar and Polypodium vulgare L. are particularly rich in compounds beneficial for health. In other studies involving 12 species of ferns [29], extracts of Polystichum polyblepharum (Roem. ex Kunze) C.Presl showed intense antioxidant activity as measured by the model free radicals DPPH and ABTS. The chemical composition of plants, including the content of antioxidants, can be modified by environmental and agrotechnical factors, which have been demonstrated in many species of seed plants [30,31]. In the case of ferns, there is a knowledge gap.
Recently, in cultivating plants in pots, research has increasingly been undertaken on the possibility of using waste materials of organic origin as an addition to the substrate [32,33]. The reason for this is the limited resources of peat, the primary substrate in horticulture [34]. In addition to peat organic materials, various species of ornamental plants reacted favourably, e.g., geranium [33], marigold [35], and impatiens [36]. Organic waste contains a relatively large number of macronutrients and therefore can be used interchangeably with mineral fertilizers as a potential source of these plant components [37]. Organic waste also has soil-forming properties, and its organic substance remains in the soil for a long time, improving the physical properties and development of biological life in the soil environment [38]. It is essential to look for organic waste that meets safety requirements so as not to contaminate the environment [39].
An example of a valuable by-product is press cake obtained from camelina (Camelina sativa), belonging to the brassica family [40]. Thus far, there is no information about the broader use of camelina press cake in potted plant production. Therefore, the research aimed to determine for the first time the influence of the camelina press cake used as an additive to the medium on growth, the content of assimilation pigments, total polyphenols, and total flavonoids in the leaves of O. sensibilis, P. vulgare, and P. polyblepharum ferns. Moreover, the antioxidant reaction of fern species to the presence of camelina press cake in the substrate was assessed. The research hypothesis is that adding press cake to the substrate causes changes in fern extracts’ content and biochemical activity.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Set-Up and Applications

Rooted cuttings of O. sensibilis, P. vulgare, and P. polyblepharum ferns were obtained as plugs in trays from the Dutch horticultural farm Vitro Plus B.V. (Vincent van Vuuren Ellen Kraaijenbrink, The Netherlands). The substrate was prepared based on light peat, deacidified to pH 5.5 (H2O), with a macronutrient content of 50 mg/L N, 50 mg/L P2O5, 60 mg/L K2O, and 80 mg/L Mg and salinity below 0.5 g/L. Camelina press cake pellet obtained from Olejarnia Niwki (Niwki, Poland) 20 days before planting the plants was mixed with the substrate at a dose of 1 g/L or 5 g/L. The composition of the press cake is presented in Table 1. Plants of each species of ferns were planted individually in 0.7 L pots in three amending levels: (I) 100% peat substrate as control, (II) substrate enriched with press cake in the amount of 1 g/L, and (III) substrate amended with press cake in the amount of 5 g/L. Plants were grown under natural photoperiod conditions from July to September 2022 on seepage mat tables in a greenhouse at the West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin (53°25′ N, 14°32′ E). The vents in the greenhouse opened automatically when the temperature during the day exceeded 22 °C and 18 °C at night. The plants were watered with tap water every 3 days. The experiment was set up in a complete randomisation design, with 16 plants (replicates) per amending level. After 90 days of cultivation, the height and width were determined for all plants. Fully developed and undamaged leaves were harvested from each plant. The leaves dry weight (DW) was determined by the constant weight drying method at 105 °C according to the method [41].

2.2. Determination of the Content of Photosynthetic Pigments

The content of total chlorophyll and carotenoids was determined using the spectrophotometric method. First, 0.5 g of dried (24 h, 30 °C, laboratory dryer, fan speed 20 rpm) and ground plant material was extracted with 80% acetone. [42]. The extracts were placed in an ultrasonic bath (5 min) and finally centrifuged in a centrifuge at a speed of 5000 rpm for 6 min. Then, 300 µL of supernatant was pipetted into a single well in a 96-well TC plate. The microplate was put into the microplate reader, the absorption spectra were recorded, and formulas were used to determine the concentration of dyes. Total chlorophylls were expressed as mg/g DM, and carotenoids were expressed as mg/100 g DM.

2.3. Determination of Total Polyphenols and Total Flavonoids

The plant material was dried at 30 °C for 24 h (laboratory dryer, fan speed 20 rpm) and then ground in a grinder. Next, 0.5 g of the sample was weighed, and 40 mL of a solution of 80% methanol and deionised water (7:3, v/v) was added. The samples were placed in an ultrasonic bath for 30 min. The obtained extracts were centrifuged for 5 min and filtered. The total polyphenol content of the extracts was determined with the Folin–Ciocalteu reagent according to the method of [43], which was modified to a microplate reader scale (Synergy LX, Bio Tek, Winooski, VT, USA). Then, 20 µL of supernatant were mixed with 150 µL of distilled water and 100 µL of Folin–Ciocalteu reagent. After 5 min, the solution was refilled with 80 µL of saturated Na2CO3. The solution was incubated in the dark at 40 °C for 30 min. The concentration of polyphenolic compounds was expressed as mg GAE equivalent per g dry sample weight (mg GAE/g DM). Total flavonoid content was measured according to the procedure of [43] with modifications. Next, 100 µL of H2O and 7.5 µL of NaNO2 were added to 25 µL of extracts. After 5 min, the mixture was supplemented with 7.5 µL of 10% AlCl3 solution. Then, the solutions prepared in this way were incubated at room temperature for 6 min before adding 25 µL of 1 M NaOH. The mixture was then diluted with 135 µL of distilled water, and the absorbance of the complex was measured at λ = 510 nm. Quercetin was used for the calibration curve, and results are expressed as mg quercetin equivalent (QE) per g DM.

2.4. Determination of Antioxidant Activity by 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) and the Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Methods

Determination of the antioxidant activity of the leaf samples consisting of the scavenging capacity of the free, stable DPPH radical was measured according to the method [44]. To 0.5 mL of a methanolic DPPH solution (0.01 mM), 0.5 mL of the extract was added. Samples were incubated for 30 min at room temperature and protected from light. Finally, the absorbance of the resulting complex was recorded at a wavelength of λ = 517 nm. The concentration of the DPPH radical solution was expressed as mg Trolox equivalent per g dry sample weight (µmol TE/g DM). Each analysis was performed in triplicate for each sample, and the results presented are the mean value.
The determination of the reduction of metal ions to ions of lower oxidation state (FRAP) by the antioxidant was measured according to the method [45]. FRAP reagent was prepared by mixing 2.5 mL of TPTZ in 40 mM HCl, 2.5 mL FeCl3, and 25 mL of acetate buffer pH = 3.6 (300 mM). Then, 20 µL of the supernatant in triplicate was transferred to a 96-well TC plate by adding 280 µL of FRAP reagent, and the plate was gently shaken for 10 s. The absorbance was read at λ = 595 nm. Results are expressed as mg ascorbic acid equivalent per g dry sample weight (mg AAE/g DM). Each analysis was performed three times in triplicate of each sample, and the obtained results are the mean value.

2.5. Data Analysis

The data were statistically analysed using the Statistica program (StatSoft Polska, Kraków, Poland) using the analysis of variance method (ANOVA test) for single-factor randomised experiments separately for each species. The factor in the ANOVAs was the amending level. Before the analysis, the data were verified for the normality of the distribution and the homogeneity of the variance in the samples. Tukey’s honest significant difference test at α = 0.05 was used to compare means.

3. Results and Discussion

The addition of camelina press cake to the substrate had a different effect on the morphological features of individual species of ferns (Table 2). In P. vulgare and P. polyblepharum, the use of camelina press cake resulted in a significant increase in plant height irrespective of the dose of the cake. The press cake’s particularly pronounced stimulating effect on plant height was observed in P. polyblepharum. These plants, grown in peat with the addition of press cake, were, on average, 77.2% higher than in the control plants. The reverse reaction was found in O. sensibilis, where the plants grown in the medium amended with cake were lower, on average, by 20.3%. Analysing the morphological features showed that camelina press cake, regardless of the dose, significantly contributed to the increase in the width of O. sensibilis and P. polyblepharum plants. Compared to the controls, the O. sensibilis and P. polyblepharum plants were, on average, 21.5% and 24.9% wider, respectively. In the case of P. vulgare, the plant width did not depend on adding the press cake pellet. The obtained results are partially confirmed by the research of Khan and Saxen [14], where neem cake applied to the soil improved tomato growth. Increasing the height or width of plants growing in the substrate mixed with camelina press cake may prove the stimulating effect of this type of waste on the intensity of cell division of the growth cone. It may be due to the high content of the press cake in yield-generating macro and micronutrients as well as other substances stimulating plant growth (Table 1).
The water content in herbal raw materials determines their quality because the higher the percentage of water in a given raw material, the smaller the amounts of valuable nutrients and secondary metabolites [46]. As the water content in raw materials increases, the possibility of microbial growth increases, and therefore, its suitability for long-term storage decreases [47]. The data presented in Table 2 show that the flax seed cake added to peat significantly increased the dry matter content in O. sensibilis and P. polyblepharum. In O. sensibilis, the dry matter content in the leaves of the control plants was 16.3%, and in the leaves of the plants grown in the medium with the expeller at a dose of 1 g and 5 g, it was 18.8% and 19.1%, respectively. In P. polyblepharum, the content of dry matter in the leaves of plants grown in 100% peat was 16.7%, and in leaves of plants grown in peat with press cake at a dose of 1 g/L and 5 g/L, it was 26.0% and 23.3%, respectively. In the case of P. vulgare, the dry weight of leaves did not depend on the enrichment of peat in press cake and was, on average, 19.9%. The herb’s dry matter increase due to the application of mustard and neem cake waste to the soil was found in three mint species (Mentha citrata, M. piperita, and M. spicata) [15]. The stimulating effect of adding the press cake to substrate on the dry matter content of plants may be the result of an improvement in the balance of nutrients in plants. The use of camelina cake pellet may also have contributed to increasing the solubility of nutrients, converting them into forms available to plants. Further research is needed on using camelina press cake as a potential fertilizer that can supplement or replace fertilization. It is necessary to assess the mineral composition of plants and the chemical and physical properties of the substrate during vegetation and after plant cultivation.
Plant growth intensity is closely related to tissue biosynthesis of assimilation pigments. Chlorophylls and carotenoids are primary photosynthetic pigments that can be of significant nutritional importance for humans. Moreover, chlorophylls, carotenoids, and their derivatives are widely used as cosmetic and food dyes [48,49]. In these studies, all three species of fern growing in peat with camelina press cake showed a marked increase in the content of both total chlorophyll and carotenoids (Table 3). The total chlorophyll content in the leaves of O. sensibilis, P. vulgare, and P. polyblepharum grown in the medium with press cake, regardless of the applied dose, was, on average, increased by 23.5%, 26.5%, and 32.5%, respectively, compared to the control. The use of camelina press cake increased the carotenoid content by an average of 17.7% (O. sensibilis), 68.7% (P. vulgare), and 41.6% (P. polyblepharum). In O. sensibilis and P. vulgare, the press cake dose significantly affected the level of carotenoids, which was higher when 1 g of press cake was used per litre of the substrate. The increased content of pigments in leaves of ferns growing in peat with press cake can be explained by the rich composition of waste in minerals, including magnesium and iron, activating the biosynthesis of chlorophylls and carotenoids [50,51]. The results show that adding the press cake to the medium significantly increases the level of carotenoids. As it is known, carotenoids are considered antioxidant vitamins to protect against diseases caused by reactive oxygen species. Enriching the diet with carotenoids may lower the risk of heart attack, stroke, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease [52,53]. The high carotenoid content in the fern leaves makes the studied species a valuable source, as previously confirmed by Dvorakova et al. [28].
There is a growing market demand for plant materials with increased biological value. Polyphenols and flavonoids constitute a rich and diverse group of specialised plant metabolites with health-promoting properties for humans [54]. Polyphenolic compounds valuable for health have strong antioxidant properties and are extremely difficult to obtain by chemical synthesis [55]. Certain species of ferns are a promising source of antioxidants, especially flavonoids [56,57].
This study demonstrated that the press cake had an unequal effect on the content of secondary metabolites and the antioxidant activity of fern leaf extracts (Table 4 and Table 5). In P. polyblepharum, enrichment of the medium with camelina press cake at a dose of 1 g/L increased the content of total polyphenols. On the other hand, in the case of O. sensibilis and P. vulgare, the addition of camelina press cake at a dose of 5 g/L to the medium resulted in a marked decrease in the total polyphenol content. In the case of the level of total flavonoids, a different reaction of species to the enrichment of peat with press cake was also shown. In P. polyblepharum, press cake pellet in a dose of 1 and 5 g/L increased the content of flavonoids in total by 1.52 and 1.59 times compared to the control. However, in O. sensibilis, adding press cake to the medium in both doses significantly reduced the content of total flavonoids. In the case of P. vulgare, press cake in the dose of 1 g/L stimulated and in the dose of 5 g/L inhibited the biosynthesis of flavonoids (Table 4). Analysing the antioxidant activity assessed by DPPH and FRAP methods, it was found that P. polyblepharum extracts obtained from plants grown in the medium with press cake had significantly increased antioxidant activity. Conversely, in O. sensibilis, the antioxidant activity of the extracts determined with the DPPH radical was lower when the press cake was used (Table 5). The antioxidant activity is generally correlated with the content of phenolic compounds [58]. Many factors can influence the synthesis of secondary metabolites in plants [59], including stress defence, environmental factors, and nutrient uptake [60,61]. The high content of minerals in the press cake added to the medium could change the polyphenol biosynthesis pathway depending on the species and, consequently, increase or decrease the synthesis and accumulation of metabolites and, indirectly, the antioxidant potential. The inconclusive results on the influence of the camelina press cake on the content of biologically active compounds in plants require further detailed studies.

4. Conclusions

Waste treatment is recommended and in line with the current energy and climate policy of the European Union under the 3R strategy (reduce, reuse, recycle). These studies assessed the waste from camelina oil production as a source of nutrients in potted fern cultivation. Adding the press cake to the substrate improved the fern leaves’ growth and nutritional value, manifested by their increased dry weight and an increased level of total chlorophyll and carotenoids. The effect of press cake on the content of secondary metabolites and the antioxidant activity of extracts was species- and dose-dependent. The most potent stimulating effect of press cake on the production of flavonoids was demonstrated in P. polyblepharum. After phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological verification, the assessed species of ferns may be a source of antioxidants with potential pro-health effects.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.P., Ł.Ł. and P.S.; methodology, A.P., Ł.Ł. and P.S.; formal analysis, A.P.; investigation, A.P. and P.S.; data curation, A.P.; writing—original draft preparation, P.S.; writing—review and editing, A.P. and Ł.Ł.; funding acquisition, A.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by Rector of the West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin for Ph.D. students at the Doctoral School, grant number: SZD/25/2022.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table
Table 1. The chemical composition of camelina press cake.
Table 1. The chemical composition of camelina press cake.
ComponentValue
Solids Content92.59%
Ash Content5.39%
Protein Content34.95%
Fat Content14.12%
Carbohydrates24.51%
Fibre13.62%
K 8186 µg/g
P 68,284 µg/g
Na 11.32 µg/g
Ca 1613 µg/g
Mg 3357 µg/g
Zn 49.99 µg/g
Fe 72.01 µg/g
Mn 0.082 µg/g
Cu 6.196 µg/g
Table
Table 2. The effect of amending peat substrate with camelina cake pellet on plant height, plant width, and leaf dry matter (DM) of three species of ferns from rooted cuttings after 90 days of greenhouse cultivation.
Table 2. The effect of amending peat substrate with camelina cake pellet on plant height, plant width, and leaf dry matter (DM) of three species of ferns from rooted cuttings after 90 days of greenhouse cultivation.
SpeciesTreatmentsPlant Height (cm)Plant Width (cm)Leaf DM (%)
O. sensibilisControl8.05 ± 1.38 a15.13 ± 2.17 b16.32 ± 0.21 b
1 g/L camelina cake6.33 ± 0.63 b18.45 ± 4.18 a18.84 ± 0.32 a
5 g/L camelina cake6.50 ± 0.22 b18.33 ± 1.04 a19.110 ± 68 a
F 4.28435.6254.95
p 0.0490.0000.000
P. vulgareControl3.40 ± 0.14 b9.43 ± 1.11 a19.53 ± 0.87 a
1 g/L camelina cake3.75 ± 0.21 a10.33 ± 1.03 a20.13 ± 0.96 a
5 g/L camelina cake3.73 ± 0.26 a9.80 ± 0.36 a19.95 ± 0.67 a
F 4.7201.0190.635
p 0.0400.3990.552
P. polyblepharumControl3.53 ± 0.46 b11.08 ± 0.53 b16.65 ± 0.61 b
1 g/L camelina cake5.58 ± 0.88 a13.90 ± 0.44 a25.89 ± 0.50 a
5 g/L camelina cake6.93 ± 0.98 a13.78 ± 1.19 a23.25 ± 0.45 a
F 11.93430.08122.6
p 0.0030.0000.000
Values are mean ± SD. In each species, different letters indicate significantly different means (p < 0.05, Tukey test).
Table
Table 3. The effect of amending peat substrate with camelina cake pellet on leaf photosynthetic pigment content of three species of hardy ferns.
Table 3. The effect of amending peat substrate with camelina cake pellet on leaf photosynthetic pigment content of three species of hardy ferns.
SpeciesTreatmentsTotal Chlorophyll (mg/g DM)Total Carotenoids (mg/100 g DM)
O. sensibilisControl1.94 ± 0.10 b165.83 ± 1.75 c
1 g/L camelina cake2.38 ± 0.17 a205.68 ± 7.33 a
5 g/L camelina cake2.41 ± 0.13 a184.69 ± 2.38 b
F 49.2338.15
p 0.0050.007
P. vulgareControl3.07 ± 0.12 b78.03 ± 0.79 c
1 g/L camelina cake3.79 ± 0.05 a156.66 ± 4.80 a
5 g/L camelina cake3.98 ± 0.02 a106.63 ± 6.06 b
F 56.27157.4
p 0.0040.001
P. polyblepharumControl2.92 ± 0.15 b88.65 ± 6.75 b
1 g/L camelina cake3.84 ± 0.15 a123.29 ± 1.93 a
5 g/L camelina cake3.90 ± 0.03 a127.83 ± 6.27 a
F 31.096.195
p 0.0100.035
Values are mean ± SD. In each species, different letters indicate significantly different means (p < 0.05, Tukey test).
Table
Table 4. The effect of amending peat substrate with camelina cake pellet on the content of secondary metabolites in leaves of three species of hardy ferns.
Table 4. The effect of amending peat substrate with camelina cake pellet on the content of secondary metabolites in leaves of three species of hardy ferns.
SpeciesTreatmentsTotal Polyphenols (mg GAE/g DM)Total Flavonoids (mg QE/g DM)
O. sensibilisControl48.86 ± 1.30 a284.01 ± 5.24 a
1 g/L camelina cake49.61 ± 0.70 a246.78 ± 6.99 b
5 g/L camelina cake41.49 ± 2.63 b191.37 ± 9.97 c
F 13.3039.35
p 0.0320.007
P. vulgareControl38.30 ± 3.32 a323.88 ± 2.25 b
1 g/L camelina cake30.09 ± 3.45 b339.59 ± 4.00 a
5 g/L camelina cake24.88 ± 1.79 c186.43 ± 3.50 c
F 10.508048
p 0.0440.000
P. polyblepharumControl44.90 ± 0.11 b128.91 ± 4.00 b
1 g/L camelina cake48.27 ± 1.06 a324.94 ± 2.71 a
5 g/L camelina cake42.91 ± 2.63 b334.12 ± 3.24 a
F 11.14153.2
p 0.0220.001
Values are mean ± SD. In each species, different letters indicate significantly different means (p < 0.05, Tukey test).
Table
Table 5. The effect of amending peat substrate with camelina cake pellet on antioxidant activity of leaf extracts of hardy ferns.
Table 5. The effect of amending peat substrate with camelina cake pellet on antioxidant activity of leaf extracts of hardy ferns.
SpeciesTreatmentsDPPH
(µmol TE/g DM)		FRAP
(mg AAE/g DM)
O. sensibilisControl3.21 ± 0.12 a9.19 ± 0.33 a
1 g/L camelina cake2.93 ± 0.24 b9.28 ± 0.02 a
5 g/L camelina cake2.90 ± 0.09 b8.90 ± 0.34 a
F 24.832.331
p 0.0010.178
P. vulgareControl3.54 ± 0.04 a8.25 ± 0.06 a
1 g/L camelina cake3.58 ± 0.07 a8.08 ± 0.12 a
5 g/L camelina cake3.64 ± 0.04 a7.93 ± 0.09 a
F 3.0493.064
p 0.1210.188
P. polyblepharumControl3.36 ± 0.14 b9.16 ± 0.06 c
1 g/L camelina cake3.65 ± 0.06 a9.71 ± 0.07 b
5 g/L camelina cake3.70 ± 0.01 a9.90 ± 0.09 a
F 12.1192.46
p 0.0080.000
Values are mean ± SD. In each species, different letters indicate significantly different means (p < 0.05, Tukey test).
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Pietrak, A.; Łopusiewicz, Ł.; Salachna, P. Growth, Leaf Pigment Content, and Antioxidant Potential of Ferns Grown in Peat Substrate Amended with Camelina Press Cake. Agronomy 2022, 12, 3100. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12123100

AMA Style

Pietrak A, Łopusiewicz Ł, Salachna P. Growth, Leaf Pigment Content, and Antioxidant Potential of Ferns Grown in Peat Substrate Amended with Camelina Press Cake. Agronomy. 2022; 12(12):3100. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12123100

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pietrak, Anna, Łukasz Łopusiewicz, and Piotr Salachna. 2022. "Growth, Leaf Pigment Content, and Antioxidant Potential of Ferns Grown in Peat Substrate Amended with Camelina Press Cake" Agronomy 12, no. 12: 3100. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12123100

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