Author Contributions
Conceptualization, J.B.; methodology, L.M., J.B., and A.N.; software, J.B.; validation, L.M., J.B., and A.N.; formal analysis, J.B.; investigation, L.M., J.B., and A.N.; resources, L.M., J.B., and A.N.; data curation, L.M. and A.N.; writing—original draft preparation, L.M., J.B., and A.N.; writing—review and editing, L.M., J.B., and A.N.; visualization, J.B.; supervision, J.B.; project administration, J.B.; funding acquisition, L.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
Sielianinov index values reflect the diversity in weather conditions in the years of the study (Interpretation: K > 1.5 indicates excessive moisture for all plants, K = 1.0–1.5 indicates sufficient moisture, K = 0.5–1.0 indicates insufficient moisture, and K < 0.5 indicates moisture less than the requirement for most plants (drought)). The black line indicates a lower limit of sufficient moisture. I, II and III—decades of the month.
Figure 1.
Sielianinov index values reflect the diversity in weather conditions in the years of the study (Interpretation: K > 1.5 indicates excessive moisture for all plants, K = 1.0–1.5 indicates sufficient moisture, K = 0.5–1.0 indicates insufficient moisture, and K < 0.5 indicates moisture less than the requirement for most plants (drought)). The black line indicates a lower limit of sufficient moisture. I, II and III—decades of the month.
Figure 2.
Distribution of the spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 1st term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 2.
Distribution of the spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 1st term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 3.
Distribution of the spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 2nd term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 3.
Distribution of the spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 2nd term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 4.
Distribution of the spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 3rd term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 4.
Distribution of the spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 3rd term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 5.
Distribution of the spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 4th term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 5.
Distribution of the spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 4th term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 6.
Distribution of spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 5th term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 6.
Distribution of spring wheat treatments in the two first canonical variates at the 5th term (cover crop: Z—zero, S—skimming, DS—direct sowing, ST—simplified tillage, PT—spring ploughing; years: 1—2011, 2—2012, 3—2013).
Figure 7.
Density of Mahalanobis distance at the five terms: I—1st term—pre-sowing, II—2nd term—tillering phase (BBCH 23), III—3rd term—second node (BBCH 32), IV—4th term—heading (BBCH 55), and V—5th term—post-harvest.
Figure 7.
Density of Mahalanobis distance at the five terms: I—1st term—pre-sowing, II—2nd term—tillering phase (BBCH 23), III—3rd term—second node (BBCH 32), IV—4th term—heading (BBCH 55), and V—5th term—post-harvest.
Figure 8.
Heatmaps for linear Pearson’s correlation coefficients between Mahalanobis distance, estimated for all pairs of treatments at the five terms. I—1st term—pre-sowing, II—2nd term—tillering phase (BBCH 23), III—3rd term—second node (BBCH 32), IV—4th term—heading (BBCH 55), and V—5th term—post-harvest.
Figure 8.
Heatmaps for linear Pearson’s correlation coefficients between Mahalanobis distance, estimated for all pairs of treatments at the five terms. I—1st term—pre-sowing, II—2nd term—tillering phase (BBCH 23), III—3rd term—second node (BBCH 32), IV—4th term—heading (BBCH 55), and V—5th term—post-harvest.
Table 1.
Total rainfall and demand for rainfall.
Table 1.
Total rainfall and demand for rainfall.
Years | Total Rainfall (mm) |
---|
April | May | June | July |
---|
2011 | 13.9 | 34.0 | 15.4 | 175.4 |
2012 | 22.9 | 77.2 | 69.8 | 197.6 |
2013 | 15.4 | 163.0 | 125.3 | 67.3 |
Mean (1961–2010) | 38.0 | 57.4 | 61.8 | 77.5 |
Monthly Demand for Rainfall (mm) |
Demand for rainfall | 45 | 66 | 83 | 89 |
Table 2.
Results of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for field experiment conducted at Brody Research and Education Station, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poland (52°26′ N; 16°17′ E) in 2011–2013. *** p < 0.001.
Table 2.
Results of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for field experiment conducted at Brody Research and Education Station, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poland (52°26′ N; 16°17′ E) in 2011–2013. *** p < 0.001.
Term | 1st Term before Sowing of Spring Wheat | 2nd Term—Tillering Phase (BBCH 23) | 3rd Term—2nd Node (BBCH 32) | 4th Term—Heading (BBCH 55) | 5th Term—Post-Harvest |
---|
Factor | Wilks’ lambda | Rao F | Wilks’ lambda | Rao F | Wilks’ lambda | Rao F | Wilks’ lambda | Rao F | Wilks’ lambda | Rao F |
Year (Y) | 0.00004 | 1347 *** | 0.00004 | 1355 *** | 0.00134 | 213.4 *** | 0.00004 | 1231 *** | 0.00027 | 487.8 *** |
Cover crop (Cc) | 0.00475 | 109.6 *** | 0.00381 | 123.3 *** | 0.00083 | 273.4 *** | 0.00472 | 110.0 *** | 0.00746 | 85.8 *** |
Tillage method (TM) | 0.00672 | 90.82 *** | 0.00832 | 80.84 *** | 0.00289 | 142.7 *** | 0.00826 | 81.16 *** | 0.01038 | 71.52 *** |
Y × Cc | 0.00005 | 101.4 *** | 0.00006 | 95.3 *** | 0.00001 | 162.6 *** | 0.00001 | 147.5 *** | 0.00008 | 86.34 *** |
Y × TM | 0.00026 | 61.91 *** | 0.00052 | 49.84 *** | 0.00006 | 95.46 *** | 0.00013 | 75.76 *** | 0.00233 | 30.93 *** |
Cc × TM | 0.00014 | 74.39 *** | 0.00024 | 62.79 *** | 0.00001 | 169.3 *** | 0.00004 | 104.4 *** | 0.00058 | 48.25 *** |
Y × Cc × TM | 0 | 71.51 *** | 0 | 42.11 *** | 0 | 59.87 *** | 0 | 63.98 *** | 0 | 39.52 *** |
Table 3.
F-statistic from three-way analysis of variance for the traits observed at the five terms.
Table 3.
F-statistic from three-way analysis of variance for the traits observed at the five terms.
Term | Source of Variation | Year (Y) | Cover Crop (Cc) | Tillage Method (TM) | Y × Cc | Y × TM | Cc × TM | Y × Cc × TM |
---|
d.f. | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 8 |
---|
I | DHA | 219.33 *** | 15.14 *** | 26.5 *** | 19.1 *** | 16.08 *** | 7.1 *** | 3.88 *** |
PAC | 624.79 *** | 9.97 *** | 0.53 | 2.71 * | 2.4 | 4.91 ** | 3.95 *** |
Azotobacter | 300.33 *** | 15.4 *** | 1.47 | 12.17 *** | 5.88 *** | 13.71 *** | 4.39 *** |
PR | 106.19 *** | 21.13 *** | 16.73 *** | 82.56 *** | 102.15 *** | 361.81 *** | 330.33 *** |
Moulds | 2368.83 *** | 40.72 *** | 130.37 *** | 45.47 *** | 102.28 *** | 80.48 *** | 141.38 *** |
Copiotrophic bacteria | 13.57 *** | 3.08 | 1.68 | 2.97 * | 2.74 * | 1.43 | 2.17 * |
Oligotrophic bacteria | 4648.49 *** | 588.09 *** | 233.67 *** | 798.11 *** | 126.55 *** | 204.84 *** | 377.75 *** |
Actinobacteria | 3761.66 *** | 19.05 *** | 257.02 *** | 117.02 *** | 38.49 *** | 67.59 *** | 328.35 *** |
Total bacterial count | 2500.69 *** | 587.71 *** | 209.53 *** | 319.86 *** | 316.96 *** | 74.96 *** | 221 *** |
II | DHA | 41.37 *** | 5.99 ** | 17.78 *** | 9.65 *** | 5.07 ** | 3.99 ** | 0.95 |
PAC | 957.61 *** | 11.45 *** | 8.43 *** | 2.59 * | 3.11 * | 3.94 ** | 2.45 * |
Azotobacter | 627.97 *** | 41.91 *** | 27.37 *** | 63.43 *** | 18.79 *** | 50.07 *** | 23.34 *** |
PR | 92.9 *** | 242.42 *** | 450.42 *** | 553.58 *** | 154.86 *** | 109.46 *** | 387.7 *** |
Moulds | 1155.73 *** | 202.18 *** | 57.77 *** | 149.13 *** | 48.04 *** | 79.33 *** | 68.58 *** |
Copiotrophic bacteria | 1860.08 *** | 80.08 *** | 66.99 *** | 85.48 *** | 116.94 *** | 76.9 *** | 41.16 *** |
Oligotrophic bacteria | 2356.37 *** | 329.44 *** | 13.44 *** | 322.56 *** | 35.95 *** | 19.11 *** | 73.74 *** |
Actinobacteria | 3354.9 *** | 141.96 *** | 346.29 *** | 125.08 *** | 98.17 *** | 213.08 *** | 69.76 *** |
Total bacterial count | 869.37 *** | 97.67 *** | 53.1 *** | 3.76 ** | 85.23 *** | 116.78 *** | 39.55 *** |
III | DHA | 173.87 *** | 3.61 * | 4.75 * | 2.52 * | 5.63 *** | 12.82 *** | 7.16 *** |
PAC | 121.49 *** | 0.51 | 15.18 *** | 3.4 * | 4.04 ** | 6.18 *** | 10.65 *** |
Azotobacter | 319.79 *** | 208.53 *** | 91.58 *** | 164.94 *** | 151.36 *** | 273.66 *** | 107.44 *** |
PR | 142.9 *** | 217.11 *** | 489.77 *** | 254.67 *** | 2.06 | 363.89 *** | 41.93 *** |
Moulds | 18.35 *** | 98.29 *** | 32.76 *** | 74.73 *** | 32.1 *** | 27.08 *** | 49.27 *** |
Copiotrophic bacteria | 1141.73 *** | 622 *** | 371.21 *** | 561.65 *** | 522.67 *** | 183.65 *** | 185.84 *** |
Oligotrophic bacteria | 516.58 *** | 22.4 *** | 174.62 *** | 187.85 *** | 36.16 *** | 129.73 *** | 211.85 *** |
Actinobacteria | 103.57 *** | 18.96 *** | 107.02 *** | 511.66 *** | 150.9 *** | 275.48 *** | 94.46 *** |
Total bacterial count | 413.62 *** | 1013.95 *** | 61.15 *** | 111.19 *** | 245.4 *** | 285.4 *** | 239.12 *** |
IV | DHA | 101.28 *** | 0.82 | 12.93 *** | 10.18 *** | 10.5 *** | 1.43 | 3.65 ** |
PAC | 679.34 *** | 6.09 ** | 4.64 * | 14.81 *** | 9.44 *** | 2.29 | 5.28 *** |
Azotobacter | 1357.72 *** | 42.39 *** | 18.16 *** | 58.19 *** | 3.1 * | 47.01 *** | 106.56 *** |
PR | 134.57 *** | 402.16 *** | 210.58 *** | 484.22 *** | 120.46 *** | 390.36 *** | 72.31 *** |
Moulds | 3670.45 *** | 296.67 *** | 104.09 *** | 242.56 *** | 257.32 *** | 316.32 *** | 298.66 *** |
Copiotrophic bacteria | 50.51 *** | 10.24 *** | 12.04 *** | 95.38 *** | 38.35 *** | 31.1 *** | 34.27 *** |
Oligotrophic bacteria | 251.64 *** | 206.29 *** | 107.73 *** | 378.18 *** | 239.23 *** | 315.98 *** | 44.97 *** |
Actinobacteria | 2973.18 *** | 362.64 *** | 291.05 *** | 197.92 *** | 64.42 *** | 436.18 *** | 94.3 *** |
Total bacterial count | 1100.32 *** | 17.15 *** | 132.76 *** | 112.01 *** | 40.25 *** | 50.72 *** | 165.16 *** |
V | DHA | 26.34 *** | 10.85 *** | 10.47 *** | 6.67 *** | 0.78 | 5.06 ** | 2.56 * |
PAC | 537 *** | 3.56 * | 1.17 | 9.67 *** | 14.44 *** | 15.26 *** | 15.96 *** |
Azotobacter | 23.69 *** | 3.54 * | 18.3 *** | 41.62 *** | 20.25 *** | 11.47 *** | 18.65 *** |
PR | 456.91 *** | 415.18 *** | 304.43 *** | 51.11 *** | 80.45 *** | 146.34 *** | 16.98 *** |
Moulds | 213.75 *** | 53.13 *** | 72.2 *** | 54.75 *** | 66.44 *** | 10.39 *** | 73.45 *** |
Copiotrophic bacteria | 259.03 *** | 15.94 *** | 48.5 *** | 23.63 *** | 35.66 *** | 10.25 *** | 17.56 *** |
Oligotrophic bacteria | 337.75 *** | 34.15 *** | 411.79 *** | 237.82 *** | 4.15 ** | 207.19 *** | 304.04 *** |
Actinobacteria | 2155.41 *** | 416.72 *** | 31.68 *** | 363.97 *** | 12.09 *** | 29.26 *** | 38.19 *** |
Total bacterial count | 2165.47 *** | 99.64 *** | 19.75 *** | 270.38 *** | 125.82 *** | 153.33 *** | 188.13 *** |
Table 4.
Correlation coefficients between the quantitative traits of spring wheat observed at the five terms. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
Table 4.
Correlation coefficients between the quantitative traits of spring wheat observed at the five terms. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
Trait | Term | DHA | PAC | Azotobacter | PR | Moulds | Copiotrophic Bacteria | Oligotrophic Bacteria | Actinobacteria |
---|
PAC | I | 0.62 *** | | | | | | | |
II | −0.42 *** | | | | | | | |
III | 0.17 | | | | | | | |
IV | −0.51 *** | | | | | | | |
V | −0.36 *** | | | | | | | |
Azotobacter | I | 0.27 ** | 0.54 *** | | | | | | |
II | 0.20 * | −0.56 *** | | | | | | |
III | −0.11 | −0.27 ** | | | | | | |
IV | −0.04 | −0.30 ** | | | | | | |
V | −0.40 *** | 0.07 | | | | | | |
PR | I | 0.12 | −0.12 | −0.08 | | | | | |
II | 0.30 ** | 0.02 | 0.14 | | | | | |
III | −0.05 | 0.1 | 0.08 | | | | | |
IV | 0.06 | 0.21 * | −0.04 | | | | | |
V | −0.05 | 0.41*** | 0 | | | | | |
Moulds | I | −0.46 *** | −0.14 | 0.43 *** | −0.24 * | | | | |
II | 0.15 | 0.28 ** | 0 | −0.16 | | | | |
III | 0.09 | 0.25 * | 0.20 * | 0.41 *** | | | | |
IV | 0.38 *** | −0.60 *** | 0.04 | −0.33 *** | | | | |
V | −0.12 | 0.32 *** | −0.08 | 0.36 *** | | | | |
Copiotrophic bacteria | I | −0.23 * | −0.05 | 0.32 *** | 0.01 | 0.50 *** | | | |
II | 0.17 | −0.12 | 0.53 *** | −0.02 | 0.39 *** | | | |
III | −0.24 * | −0.38 *** | −0.15 | −0.11 | −0.20 * | | | |
IV | −0.09 | 0.25 ** | 0.20 * | 0.13 | −0.28 ** | | | |
V | 0.45 *** | −0.54 *** | −0.07 | −0.17 | −0.38 *** | | | |
Oligotrophic bacteria | I | −0.46 *** | −0.32 *** | 0.07 | −0.22 * | 0.72 *** | 0.29 ** | | |
II | 0.35 *** | −0.34 *** | 0.63 *** | 0.08 | 0.27 ** | 0.70 *** | | |
III | 0.44 *** | 0.14 | 0.01 | 0.20 * | 0.32 *** | −0.24 * | | |
IV | 0.16 | −0.20 * | 0.14 | −0.01 | 0.20 * | −0.11 | | |
V | −0.06 | 0.21 * | −0.16 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.18 | | |
Actinobacteria | I | −0.49 *** | −0.75 *** | −0.42 *** | −0.13 | 0.26 ** | 0.09 | 0.44 *** | |
II | −0.06 | 0.52 *** | 0 | −0.02 | 0.53 *** | 0.50 *** | 0.38 *** | |
III | 0.24 * | −0.04 | 0.06 | 0.28 ** | 0.28 ** | 0.11 | 0.39 *** | |
IV | −0.22 * | −0.01 | 0.49 *** | −0.08 | −0.1 | −0.01 | 0.52 *** | |
V | 0.29 ** | −0.40 *** | 0.05 | −0.35 *** | −0.32 *** | 0.33 *** | −0.24 * | |
Total bacterial count | I | −0.50 *** | −0.36 *** | 0.14 | 0 | 0.66 *** | 0.57 *** | 0.55 *** | 0.41 *** |
II | 0.03 | 0.42 *** | −0.02 | −0.09 | 0.64 *** | 0.54 *** | 0.34 *** | 0.75 *** |
III | 0.23 * | 0.11 | 0 | 0.12 | −0.01 | −0.13 | 0.19 | 0.14 |
IV | −0.23 * | 0.04 | 0.51 *** | −0.06 | −0.21 * | 0.36 *** | 0.29 ** | 0.73 *** |
V | 0.16 | −0.37 *** | 0.13 | −0.33 *** | −0.35 *** | 0.36 *** | −0.07 | 0.77 *** |
Table 5.
Correlation coefficients between the first two canonical variates and the original traits at the five terms.
Table 5.
Correlation coefficients between the first two canonical variates and the original traits at the five terms.
Term | I | II | III | IV | V |
---|
Trait | V1 | V2 | V1 | V2 | V1 | V2 | V1 | V2 | V1 | V2 |
DHA | −0.66 *** | −0.07 | 0.16 | −0.16 | −0.06 | 0.24 | −0.3 | 0.39 * | −0.34 | −0.02 |
PAC | −0.55 ** | −0.40 * | 0.35 | 0.68 *** | −0.31 | 0.07 | 0.13 | −0.68 *** | 0.57 ** | 0.02 |
Azotobacter | 0.03 | −0.34 | 0.24 | −0.61 *** | −0.34 | 0.23 | 0.65 *** | 0.27 | −0.06 | 0.22 |
PR | −0.15 | 0.39 * | 0.16 | 0.55 ** | 0 | 0.61 *** | 0.19 | −0.42 * | 0.44 * | 0.06 |
Moulds | 0.79 *** | −0.33 | 0.66 *** | −0.05 | −0.15 | 0.61 *** | −0.35 | 0.91 *** | 0.38 | −0.13 |
Copiotrophic bacteria | 0.69 *** | 0.09 | 0.73*** | −0.50 ** | 0.93 *** | −0.18 | 0.27 | −0.28 | −0.34 | −0.28 |
Oligotrophic bacteria | 0.82 *** | −0.51 ** | 0.63 *** | −0.59 ** | 0 | 0.58 ** | 0.37 | 0.47 * | 0.40 * | −0.87 *** |
Actinobacteria | 0.66 *** | 0.39 * | 0.89 *** | 0.16 | 0.35 | 0.73 *** | 0.88 *** | 0.28 | −0.93 *** | −0.05 |
Total bacterial count | 0.88 *** | 0.22 | 0.83 *** | 0.05 | 0.02 | −0.21 | 0.88 *** | 0.12 | −0.88 *** | −0.36 |
Variation percentage | 60.15 | 14.64 | 54.26 | 18.84 | 27.96 | 27.57 | 39.27 | 30.7 | 53.03 | 20.65 |
Table 6.
Correlation coefficients between Mahalanobis distance, estimated at the five terms.
Table 6.
Correlation coefficients between Mahalanobis distance, estimated at the five terms.
Term | I | II | III | IV | V |
---|
I | 1 | | | | |
II | 0.3011 *** | 1 | | | |
III | 0.1176 * | −0.0492 | 1 | | |
IV | 0.2258 *** | 0.511 *** | −0.1195 * | 1 | |
V | −0.0261 | 0.1079 * | −0.1988 *** | −0.0211 | 1 |