Regulatory Mechanisms for the Conservation of Endangered Plant Species, Chlorophytum tuberosum—Potential Medicinal Plant Species

Abstract

The present review paper is an attempt to examine and provide an overview of the various conservation strategies and regulatory framework to protect endangered plants, including Chlorophytum tuberosum, popularly known as Safed Musli in the local language. C. tuberosum belongs to the family Liliaceae and is being used in the indigenous systems of medicine as a galactagogue, aphrodisiac, antitumor, immunomodulatory, antidiabetic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, anti-ageing, antimicrobial, etc. This plant has great medicinal and commercial value and is part of the Biological Diversity Act, but due to a lack of effective conservation, it is on the verge of extinction because of natural and manmade reasons, such as loss of habitat, climate change, pollution, excessive harvesting, etc. The most valuable medicinal plants have great importance; hence, many conservation techniques are being employed to protect them. In furtherance to the conservation of such plant species, strategic efforts, in the form of laws and policies, are laid; however, existing legislative mechanisms and policy parameters are not sufficient to overcome the challenges of conservation of such plant species, including Safed Musli, hence, this plant has been considered as a critically endangered plant in India. It is pertinent to note that we do not have specific legislation enacted for the protection of plant species; however, efforts are being made to conserve it under various laws, such as the Forest Conservation Act, Biological Diversity Act 2002, and many other allied legislations. This basic legislation of the Biological Diversity Act also lacks focal attention on the conservation of endangered plant species. Moreover, decentralization of power and actual community participation in conservation practices are also missing. A cumulative effect of both scientific measures and legal mechanisms supported by community participation may produce better results in the conservation of plant species, including Safed Musli. The protection of rich sources and biological diversity is not being taken as seriously as it ought to be, hence, it is necessary to improve awareness and public participation in conservation techniques with effective legislation for the conservation of highly endangered plant species.

1. Introduction

Law operates in society and not in a vacuum, and has proximity to many social and scientific changes and adaptations. Accordingly, the law is expected to change in tune with changing circumstances to meet the expectations of the time. The law in all-purpose regulates and channels the actions of the people. For nature’s safety, conservation is a basic issue in developing countries [1]. The conservation of natural properties and plant species is a transboundary matter of primacy in furtherance to seek the balance of the ecosystem and to have sustainable development. Human beings and nature are closely associated with each other. Human beings, for the greed of development, have exploited nature and natural resources, which has inconsequentially deteriorated the quality of nature and the environment. Nature and its natural resources do not get the significance they should get. This has posed a serious challenge to the entire world. The exploitation of natural resources and endangered plant species has also disturbed the balancing system of nature and resulted in the loss of great medicinal properties. Indian culture and its religious beliefs hold a deep appreciation for nature and natural resources, even though the explosion of the population due to urbanization has exerted immense pressure on the already limited natural resources. As a result, this has emerged as a significant threat to endangered plant species [2]. The many man-made and natural interventions have changed the climate by putting many plant species at high risk.

India is one of the rich sources of flora and fauna, but due to habitat destruction, many plant species are about to be extinguished [3]. Our traditional medicine, Ayurveda, holds great importance due to its medicinal and pharmaceutical properties, which are useful for treating various diseases. However, over time, the plant species with high pharmaceutical value, which are a source of revenue, are on the verge of extinction. We are losing the great heritage and rich source of medicine because of disregard, and the absence of legal and regulatory mechanisms to protect such endangered plant species. The overexploitation of plant species due to natural factors, such as global warming and greenhouse gases, directly or indirectly affects the plant species, putting them at a high risk of extinction [4].

Development activities and the discharge of waste and sewage by industries and mines disturb the plant cycle and have a considerable impact on their lives [5]. In addition to this, man-made reasons, such as over-harvesting because of its medicinal or pharmaceutical value, revenue importance, deforestation, and grazing of cattle, have also resulted in adverse consequences on overall plant species [6]. In addition to this loss of degradation of habitats, illegal trade, human settlement, climate disaster, etc., are a few reasons for the threat to such plant species. In accordance with the directorate of plant protection, certain plant species require utmost attention to safeguard them as they are endangered. Therefore, it is important to prioritize this objective. The Ministry also provides coordination and support through incentives and policy parameters. However, it appears that we lack stringent measures, coordination, strong regulatory mechanisms, and legislative policies that focus on conserving severely endangered plant species.

Chlorophytum tuberosum Baker (Safed Musli) is a member of the Liliaceae family. It can be found in rain-fed regions of India. The plant typically thrives on rocky areas along valleys, grassy slopes, and woodland borders between 1300 and 2800 m [7]. This erect plant can grow up to 1.5 to 2 feet tall, with sheathing leaf bases that are acute to acuminate and have a full border. Ellipsoid tubers are 10–12 cm long and 1.1–1.9 cm in diameter hanging from the tuberous roots [8]. The tuberous roots have significant therapeutic value. The aphrodisiac and galactagogue qualities of Safed Musli are used in addition to its nutritional, health-promoting, immunoenhancing, hepatoprotective, and antioxidant capabilities [9]. The roots are also used as an antipyretic for leucorrhea and fever [10].

The leaves, roots, and seeds of C. tuberosum are collected from the forest without care and caution, resulting in severe threats to its survival. Overexploitation and habitat destruction have seriously endangered Safed Musli, which is now on the verge of extinction [11]. Due to their medicinal and commercial value, the tubers of C. tuberosum are in high demand, leading to irregular harvesting practices that adversely affect the plant’s natural habitat globally. Therefore, this review emphasizes the need for scientific techniques and different regulatory mechanisms for the conservation of this endangered medicinal plant species, C. tuberosum.

2. Chlorophytum tuberosum Status in India

Chlorophytum tuberosum, also known as Safed Musli in the local language (although, there are different species varying in color and size), is found in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, America, and some parts of Australia [12]. The genus of Chlorophytum has over 215 identified species. In India, Safed Musli is primarily found in deep forests, sanctuaries, Aravalli hills of Rajasthan, Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, and other parts of the country, and is the primary source of income for tribal populations [13]. Due to its medicinal value, the demand for Safed Musli is increasing both domestically and internationally. Variations in the growing pattern of Safed Musli are witnessed in India. In India, about 13 species are reported, of which seven species (C. tuberosum, C. arundinaceum, C. breviscapum, C. attenuatum, C. laxum, C. borivilianum, and C. malabaricum) are commonly observed [14]. These are in tropical regions, which have high temperatures leading to the degradation of plant tubers during post-harvest storage. There are several methods (low-temperature storage) that have been performed by researchers to conserve this plant [15].

In Ayurveda, the importance of medicinal plants is mentioned in a separate category as “Ayurvedic Rasayanas”. Its medicinal properties are duly recognized in Ayurveda. This has been used in several medicines, such as galactagogues and aphrodisiacs, and is also considered an alternative natural Viagra [8]. Due to having potential medicinal uses in traditional herbal medicine in India, C. tuberosum is used to treat various ailments such as diabetes, diarrhea, cholera, leucorrhoea, kidney stones, sexual disorders, and general debility [16]. The plant is harvested for its white tuberous roots and is much more in demand for its great medicinal value. The growing importance of plant species having potential medicinal values and almost zero side effects led to their growing demands. The increase in demand for this medicinal plant as a sex tonic due to its medicinal and aphrodisiac properties is one reason for its market value increase. The international demand for dry Safed Musli is approximately 35,000 M tons/annum, whereas the present supply is only about 15,000 M tons/annum [10,17]. The increasing demand has created pressure on Indian forests and if steps for timely conservation are not taken, the Indian forests will lose this highly valuable and important plant.

Sugars, proteins, starch, ascorbic acid, saponins, phenolics, and amino acids (alanine, leucine, valine, proline, and glutamic acid) are abundant in the plant [18,19]. This plant species has a variety of phytoconstituents that are responsible for treating various illnesses (Figure 1). Different plant parts of C. tuberosum with their medicinal properties are listed in

Table 1. Account of different plant parts of Chlorophytum tuberosum in conventional and traditional medicine.

Plant Part	Common Use	Mode of Consumption	Reference
Leaf	Immune disorders	Decoction of leaf and root	[20]
	Diabetes	A decoction made from fresh leaves is orally given to diabetic persons	[19]
	Cutaneous	Paste of leaf applied on the affected area	[21]
	Guinea worm	Leaf decoction, dried root, and tubers are a popular tonic and aphrodisiac, crushed tubers	[8]
Cladodes	Seminal debility	One teaspoon of dry powder of cladodes of this plant with one glass of milk every day	[22]
Root	Tonic	The root powder is used as a tonic	[23,24]
		Two teaspoons of juice obtained from fruits given twice daily	[25]
		The root is powdered with that of Bombax ceiba, Capparis sepiaria, and fruits of Pedalium murex and taken with water	[26]
	Leucorrhoea	Roots of Safed Musli after crushing with twigs of Pedalium murex and seeds of Sida spp. used for the treatment of leucorrhoea	[23]
	Fatigue, general weakness	A decoction made from tuberous roots	[8]
	Mental retardation	Root tuber are boiled and given to mentally ill persons. The tuber is boiled with milk in case of impotency and weakness	[27]
	Dysmenorrhoea	Extract of the roots crushed in rice water	[28]
	Post-delivery tonic	The root powder is given to women after delivery for strengthening	[29]
	Nocturnal emission	The root of C. tuberosum in combination with small twigs of Pedalium murex and Sida seeds	[23]
	Impotency and low sperm count	Root powder	[30]
	Increase masculinity	Powder of roots is given to drink every day	[31]
	Weakness sexual vitality	Root	[32]
	Sexual debility in men and women	Root powder is made into a paste by mixing in water	[23]
	Tonic	Dried root powder mixed with milk or water is taken orally once a day in the early morning on an empty stomach for a month	[33]
	Diarrhea and dysentery	Roots are used to treat diarrhea and dysentery and are also used as demulcent and galactagogue	[34]
Tuber	Insect bites, centipede bites, and poisonous bites	Paste made from tubers is applied to the affected area	[35]
	Loose motion and muscle cramps	Extract (250 mL) of tuber thrice a day is given orally	[36]
	Tonic	The powder of tuber or raw tuber is considered to be highly energetic and as good as a tonic	[37]
		Dried tubers	[38,39,40]
	Impotence, diabetes, fever, expectorant, leucorrhea, sexual tonic, and general weakness	Powder form	[41]
	Dysmenorrhoea	Fresh tuber with rice water	[33]
	Cholera	Dried form	[30]
	Nervine and general tonic	The drug obtained from tubers	[23]
	Leucorrhoea	Dried tubers	[12]
	Kidney stones	Dried roots and tubers	[8]
	Asthma	Tubers (250 g) of C. tuberosum are mixed with 5 g of each of Crocus sativus and Syzygium aromaticum in an earthen pot, the mouth of which is to be made air tight with clay. This pot is then kept in a heap of cow dung for 5 days, and 6 g of this paste is given with cow’s milk twice daily for 6 months	[42]
	Waist pain, spermatorrhoea, to improve memory	Rhizome of Dicranopteris linearis and about 5 g of rhizome C. tuberosum and root of Bombax ceiba are made into a paste, which is given for one month for waist pain as a tonic	[43]
	Seminal debility	Tuber powder with milk given in seminal debility	[44]
	Dysentery, leucorrhoea, spermatorrhoea, seminal emission, as a sex tonic	Dry powder of tuber one/two teaspoons with mild hot water is used in constipation Two-to-three pills in a day with a glass of lukewarm cow-milk is used in leucorrhoea, spermatorrhoea, and seminal emission	[9]
Whole plant	Gynecological disorders	Decoction is used as a general tonic, in post-natal care to increase the fertility, and in diseases in females	[45]
	Sexual disorders	Decoction	[46,47]

.

3. Demand for the Plant

The huge demand for this plant is around 300–700 tons yearly at the local and global levels [7,18]. Due to the high demand, C. tuberosum is beyond the reach of the sustainability of our forests. Tubers are harvested in an unplanned manner, which affects the natural habitat [48]. Major threats to the plant are unsustainable collection and habitat loss. Generally, root collection is practiced before seed maturation, which drastically hampers the natural regeneration of the species [49]. In previous studies, no systematic and organized attempts were made for scientific cultivation and conservation of Safed Musli in India. In cultivation practices and conservation techniques, we are facing a lot of difficulties. The problems are encountered in the conservation of such endangered plant species because of a lack of scientific knowledge regarding cultivation techniques and the cost of seed material coupled with a lack of well-organized effective technology for collection and peeling of roots. Some states such as Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Haryana have conducive atmospheres for the growth of this plant since it requires sandy loam soils to assist in the fleshy root development of Safed Musli [48,49].

The roots of Safed Musli contain most of the medicinal properties. Due to market demand for Safed Musli, many unscientific ways of cultivation and harvesting techniques crop up to expedite the production of Safed Musli, which inconsequentially hampered its overall quality. In the normal course, Safed Musli tubers are harvested for 9 months after plantation and, thereafter, are stored for at least 3 months. At present, the routine practice of storage is done by keeping Safed Musli tubers in semi-open areas by putting tiny layers of sand on them. It has been observed that sprouting causes a loss of the biochemical content and tuber quality. The unsystematic and unorganized market system of medicinal plants is responsible, to some extent, for variations in its prices. Even adulteration in drug preparation is also detected, which hampers the credibility of original quality products on the market. Similarly, unorganized marketing channels are equally responsible for variations in prices of Safed Musli in India itself, irrespective of its quality [47]. Manufacturing is also decreasing because of low-quality unscientific and premature harvesting. There is no control over harvesting practices because of the business orientation of the cultivation of plants. Such enlarged commercial manipulation and low production is a matter of great concern in respect of the conservation of Safed Musli as an endangered plant species.

Many developed countries are using herbal products due to their growing importance and zero/fewer side effects. The World Health Organization (WHO) is trying to streamline such medicinal plants in the entire world to determine their real therapeutic effects. Globally speaking, the United States of America, Britain, Australia, Japan, France, Italy, China, and Gulf countries have the utmost consumption of botanical medicines. Safed Musli is being used worldwide because of its medicinal properties as a health tonic for various sexual disorders, immunity boosters, and other allied purposes. Pratik Gami, Rajendra Agricultural University, India is a major exporter of Safed Musli in the global market; however, its cultivation and processing need to be more systematic to attend to the target results and meet the demands without depreciating quality. Of the 50,000 tons of the total global requirement, only 5000 is being produced in India at various farmlands [42,46]. In India, attempts are being made to systematize the cultivation, production, and export of Safed Musli, considering its commercial value as an important herbal drug. The Medicinal Plant Board constituted by the government of India has acknowledged the significance of Chlorphytum borivilianum Sant. F and recognized it as the 26th significant herb to be conserved. This board boosts and encourages the cultivation of Safed Musli by providing subsidies of 20% through the National Horticultural Board towards the cost of the project. India is a major supplier of plant-based drugs and there is much demand for Safed Musli in the U.S.A., Gulf, and European countries for manufacturing herbal products [50].

In India, efforts are being made for the conservation and farming of such herbal plants. Similarly, the U.S.A is also is trying to cultivate through farming. In India, many farmers are taking interest in the cultivation of Safed Musli and making an investment in it; however, the existing market is not streamlined with buyback arrangements so farmers should not sustain the loss. We need to organize a systematic market for the sale and export of Safed Musli so that its quality and production and manufacturing can be properly monitored [41]. The most important aspect is unfamiliarity with the cultivation of Safed Musli in a scientific and organized manner. Hence, we need to establish a separate mechanism in India to make awareness about the cultivation of such cash crops. Moreover, we also need to see a proper channel to manufacture, supply, and maintain the quality of Safed Musli, so that actual growers can get benefit from such schemes [41]. Against the backdrop growing importance of herbal medicines and their market value, farmers are coming forward and showing interest, but it is equally important to monitor their quality. This consequently may help in maintaining the standard market practices and upholding the prices of Safed Musli in view of its quality.

Such a systematic and scientific approach to conservation cultivation, manufacture, and sale may generate revenue through herbal drugs and will boost the herbal drug industry in India. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has included this plant species in critically endangered species. Such a critically rare category in general indicates such species is facing a very great threat of extinction. It indicates that the species population size has been reduced or will be reduced by 80% within three generations. Such a highly daggered category has been given by the IUCN Red List for such species. To conserve the species, the IUCN Red List recommended trade regulations and development of sustainable harvesting packages, in situ conservation, and habitat management. Different conservation strategies for C. tuberosum are shown in Figure 2. It is recommended that in the case that we fail to take appropriate steps in furtherance to take care of such endangered plant species, it may result in extinction.

4. The Importance of Chlorophytum tuberosum

4.1. Antioxidant Activity

Although, oxidative reactions are necessary for regular biological functions, they can also be damaging to vital cells if antioxidants are not available. Natural antioxidants include vitamins A, C, and E, as well as enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and others, that help us to combat oxidative damage [8]. Reduction in disease and mortality rates has been reported with the consumption of antioxidant-rich foods [51]. Ethanolic extracts of the dried roots of C. tuberosum showed very promising results in the reducing capacity assay and DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity [52]. Different studies have reported the antioxidant activity of this plant [8,53,54].

4.2. Antimicrobial Activity

In comparison to traditional antibiotics, ethyl acetate and alcoholic extracts of C. tuberosum showed high antibacterial activity. C. tuberosum bis-isoflavonoid [Bis (8-methyl-4’methoxy-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside) I-5, II-5 bis-isoflavone] was discovered to have significant antimicrobial properties [55]. The antibacterial activity of aqueous extracts of leaves from eight Chlorophytum species was tested using the agar diffusion method against different bacterial and fungal species [56].

4.3. Anticancer Activity

Saponins are a class of natural compounds that have been proven to have significant cytotoxic potential. As a result, many researchers set out to assess the anticancer potential of saponins from various plant species. However, one such attempt was to look into the effects of different Chlorophytum species on leukemia cell lines. Methanolic extract and saponins from different species of Chlorophytum were evaluated in vitro on the HL60 leukemia cell line and showed promising results [57].

4.4. Immunomodulatory Activity

Due to the availability of immunomodulatory potential, a wide variety of plants were employed to treat human illnesses in the past. Traditional herbs have been used for immunostimulatory purposes in Ayurveda and other traditional medical systems [8]. The extract of C. tuberosum, which is high in inulin-type fructans, was discovered to have strong immunomodulatory activity for scavenging DPPH, nitric oxide, lipid peroxidation, and ferry bipyridyl complexes [53].

4.5. Traditional Uses of Chlorophytum tuberosum

To revolute the treatment of sexual disorders, medicinal herbs play an important role. In Indian traditional medicine, C. tuberosum is considered the most effective revitalizing herb and is traditionally believed to have effective aphrodisiac properties [8]. In Ayurveda, C. tuberosum is used to treat patients suffering from sexual disorders, including erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation [58]. To cure centipede bites and poisonous bites, the tuber paste of C. tuberosum is used as a remedy [35]. The tuber extract of C. tuberosum is used during muscle cramps and loose motion fatigue, general weakness, and leucorrhoea [13,30]. Cholera can also be cured using this plant species.

The juice of the roots/tubers as well as the root powder of C. tuberosum can be prepared as an energy tonic and used to cure several diseases [25,37,39]. The root of C. tuberosum, Bombax ceiba L., Capparis sepiaria L., and the fruit of Pedalium murex L. are used to prepare a powder mixture and is prescribed to take with water as a tonic. The drug obtained from the tubers of this plant species is used as an important nervine and general tonic for strength and vigor [39]. The powder mixture prepared by the root of Safed Musli, twigs of P. murex, and seeds of Sida spp. is used for the treatment of leucorrhoea [26]. Roots of Safed Musli crushed in rice water is an extract used by tribals for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea [28]. The root powder of Safed Musli is used often to provide strength in women after delivery [29]. The combination of Safed Musli’s roots and small twigs of P. murex with Sida seeds is used to cure nocturnal emission. Dry powder of cladodes of Safed Musli with milk every day can be used to cure seminal debility, and also, the root can also help to cure sexual debilities, such as impotency and low sperm count [23,24]. Decoction of leaves and roots of C. tuberosum is also used for the treatment of diabetes and some immune disorders [20]. It is supposed that the tubers and roots of the C. tuberosum plant have the activity to dissolve kidney stones [24].

4.6. Reasons for the Extinction of Safed Musli as an Endangered Plant Species

Many plant species have medicinal and therapeutic value and these endangered plant species can be conserved by quarantining a few of such plant species [59]. Ecological balances are necessary for the protection of the environment and self-sustainability. Conservation of biological diversity includes these plant species, including Safed Musli, but due to over-exploitation, these plant species are on the verge of extinction. These plant species are also used for carrying out different scientific and biological experiments to use them in pharmaceutical drugs, but the population puts a severe risk to the natural resources, including flora fauna and endangered plant species [60].

Excessive developmental activities have also destroyed habitats. The growth of development comprises many activities, such as roads, railway lines, dams, mines, and human settlements, which inconsequentially disturb the whole ecosystem and thus affect the normal growth of endangered plant species [60]. The cumulative result of climate change, natural habitats, and population growth development activities affect the overall percentage of flora and fauna, and plant species in the country. These plant species are at risk because of a lack of effective regulatory control mechanisms, which makes the issue of plant species more complex [60].

India is a rich source of biodiversity comprising plants, trees, herbs, and shrubs, which need better protection. As wildlife protection, the Act specifically protects our animals, but unfortunately, except for the Biological Diversity Act 2002, no other specific legislation is enacted targeting the goal of conservation of plant species; as a result, we are losing our rich source of biological diversity [61].

4.7. Antistress Property

Tuber extracts of Chlorophytum are considered antistress agents and have adaptogenic activity [62]. This property is assessed by swim endurance stress, anorexic tests in rats, and the despair swim test. It has been evaluated that under cold stress, an alcoholic extract of Chlorophytum sp. significantly enhances the time of swimming and also helps in reducing the ulcer index and weight of the adrenal gland [62].

5. The Conservation of Chlorophytum tuberosum Plant Species

5.1. In Situ Conversation

In situ conservation is a system where the whole community participates in the preservation of highly endangered plant species. This mechanism involves community participation to preserve both the endangered plants and their natural communities, along with the network of complex relationships within them. This conservation strategy is being implemented to protect endangered plant species. This method adopts an eco-centric approach to conservation, where minimal human intervention is prioritized to conserve highly endangered plant species [63].

Certain plant species are protected under the Biodiversity Act. The declaration of certain areas as protected areas reduces frequent human intervention, but it is not sufficient in itself. There is a need for a sense of commitment and responsibility on the part of common people, particularly those residing near these protected areas. They should be educated to understand scientific techniques of conservation and its values. This participative mechanism can aid in the better implementation of in situ conservation. Sustainability as a lifestyle needs to be instilled among such people and applied as the paramount consideration in such protected areas. These techniques also need to be monitored and supervised to achieve to better results. In situ conservation is a systematic approach to conserve such endangered plant species with great medicinal value [64]. This technique comprises various strategic modes employed for conservation. First and foremost, the important thing of this technique is to search for the location of such plant species based on their medicinal and commercial utility. Second, the formation of a network and zone of forest habitat of a particular size is required to supervise, control, and conserve such plant species [59]. In addition to this, local participation always strengthens the in-situ conservation mechanism; hence, sharing of financial and social advantages with local persons supports the conservation of such plant species [65]. This inconsequentially also assists in the protection of the traditional domain knowledge of local people along with their culture. Another important aspect of this technique is to review and survey such plants after the periodical intervals, which may contribute to understanding natural diversity and methods of conservation of such plant species.

In addition to this genetic and biochemical evaluation, it is also necessary to measure and evaluate conservation. Retrieval and regaining of such plant species are only possible through a strong systematic plan of conservation. In view of this, formation of the seed center of such a plant along with its meticulous accumulation is one more means of conservation. Local people are not alert and conscious about the medicinal and commercial value of such plant species; hence, they should be trained by organizing special training camps in scientific and systematic conservation methods. There are various in-situ conservation methods for medicinal plants which are as follows:

5.2. Biosphere Reserves

As mentioned earlier, the government, through the Ministry of Environment and Forest, has listed almost 13 biosphere reserves for the conservation of medicinal plants in various states of India [66]. The establishment of biosphere reserves in more than 13 states is a welcome initiative. However, to protect various endangered medicinal plant species, we need comprehensive protection parameters to address the challenges of conserving medicinal plants. The government needs to implement many other policy parameters. Sunderban in West Bengal and the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu are some of the biospheres established for the protection of such endangered plant species [67].

5.3. National Parks

The government of India has established more than 90 national parks, including Pin Valley National Park and Great Himalayan National Park in Himachal Pradesh. Unfortunately, a considerable population resides in proximity to these forests [66]. In such circumstances, the declaration of protected areas alone does not meet the expectation for the conservation of medicinal plants, including Safed Musli. As part of conservation strategies and techniques, the establishment of national parks is an efficient way to generate a sense of responsibility and actual participation from people in the conservation of medicinal plant species [68]. If people located near forest areas are made aware of conservation techniques, they can support and cooperate in the conservation of threatened medicinal plant species.

5.4. Sacred Groves

Religious and cultural practices in India demonstrate benevolent values towards nature and plants, with a deep-rooted concern and care for their preservation. Sacred groves provide an opportunity to leverage these cultural practices for the conservation of medicinal plants, such as Tulsi, Bael, and Safed Musli. In India, it is estimated that over 13,720 small sacred groves are protected using cultural practices [69], with the state of Manipur alone having reported more than 365 sacred groves. These groves hold ecological significance, as they correlate ritual practices with ecology, particularly for the preservation of endangered plant species [70].

5.5. Other Supporting Methods of In Situ Conservation

Traditional agricultural practices are more sustainable and eco-friendly, which strengthens the conservation of medicinal plant species [71]. Our traditional agricultural practices are eco-centric and less harmful to nature and land. Farmers who live in or near forest areas are knowledgeable about medicinal plants [72], and their knowledge should be systematized through proper documentation. We can encourage garden conservation of medicinal plants in small apartments, flats, and bungalows, although people may not know how to grow medicinal plants, such as fruits and vegetables. Parafrost conservation is another way to deal with conservation [73]. A national policy for the conservation of endangered medicinal plant species may make our program stronger by identifying protected areas of such plant species. Proper monitoring of the plant species conservation is required in those protected areas. Streamlining the process and segregation of plant species is also a priority concern. The park department should recognize new protected areas where such plant species are identified to boost conservation efforts. Economic incentives may encourage people to contribute to conservation techniques.

5.6. Ex Situ Conservation

Ex situ conservation is a crucial mechanism for the protection of plant species that are at high risk of extinction [74]. Nowadays, the government, through parks and botanical gardens, is encouraging the long-term conservation of plant species. As part of the conservation program, gene banks, DNA libraries, and plant tissue cultures are being established. In ex situ conservation, the storage of seeds of various endangered plant species is kept in the form of a repository. Many institutes have been established specifically for the conservation of medicinal plants, such as the National Bureau of Plants Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in New Delhi, the Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) in Uttar Pradesh, and the Tropical Botanical Garden Research Institute (TBGRI) in Thiruvananthapuram, among others, which are initiatives by the government [75]. Seed conservation in the form of a gene bank is very helpful for the germplasm conservation of agricultural crops. The seeds are stored at a temperature of −20 °C to maintain their durability for up to 100 years. The Food and Agricultural Organization and the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) have set the standards for the storage of seeds.

The national active germplasm sites are a crucial component of the national biodiversity conservation network. The National Agricultural Growth Scheme (NAGS) specifically focuses on maintaining, protecting, multiplying, and assessing the collection and distribution of germplasms. It is a supporting mechanism located in various parts of India that strengthens the conservation of endangered plants. Cryopreservation is another technique used for germplasm preservation. Seeds can be classified into two categories, orthodox and recalcitrant, based on their desiccation-tolerant capacity, so that they can be stored for a longer period of time. The national active germplasm sites ensure active collection and distribution of seeds to the bona fide users. Tissue culture conservation can also be encouraged as part of the conservation techniques for better results [74,75].

Tissue culture conservation requires specialized facilities and the guidance of scientists and technicians, and is essential for preserving endangered medicinal plant species, such as Safed Musli. The government should provide financial aid, assistance, and training to support the development of tissue culture conservation programs for such species. Additionally, the government should promote active conservation programs for plant species through botanical gardens. While there are many botanical gardens in the country managed by various public and private organizations and universities, only a few have conservation programs that play a crucial role in protecting plant species [30]. This number must increase to expand the ex situ conservation mechanism and safeguard endangered plant species. Ex situ conservation techniques should be implemented with a combination of assessment, quarantine, and characterization of such rare plants [76]. A strong support system, strategic design, and specific plans are necessary to promote conservation. The dissemination of ideas, information, and training is also essential for all stakeholders, including the forest department and local people within the vicinity. Nationwide monitoring of such plant species and periodic reviews, the creation of parks, and the establishment of gardens also contribute to fulfilling the objectives of conservation techniques. To strengthen these techniques, the local needs and desires of the people should be taken into consideration to encourage their involvement.

5.7. Legal Land Regulatory Framework for Conservation of Endangered Plant Species in India—An Overview

The Indian constitution guarantees environmental protection through the directive principles of state policy, particularly through Article 48(a) and Article 51(g), which provide a basic background for the protection of nature and natural resources (Constitution of India) [77]. These directive principles are read as fundamental rights within the meaning of Article 21 of the constitution. Therefore, the right to a pollution-free environment has been recognized as part of the right to life under Article 21 of the constitution of India. In addition to these directives, the constitution also places the responsibility of showing compassion towards living creatures and taking care of forests and wildlife on the state and individuals, respectively. Article 48(a) imposes an obligation on the state, and a similar responsibility is shouldered by each individual through Article 51(g). The national forest policy of 1980 specifically emphasizes the maintenance and balance of the ecosystem. Its main objective is to preserve the flora, fauna, and natural forests and to conserve the biodiversity and genetic resources of the country. Forest Act also controls the use of forest land as non-forest land. Legislative frameworks that have a direct and indirect impact on the conservation of plant species include legislation such as the “Indian Forest Act, 1927”, under which a notification can be issued to reserve the trees, and Section 80 specifies the power of management of forest as a property of the government and other people [78].

In addition to the constitutional provisions, the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, is another legislation that includes several provisions that may help to some extent in protecting endangered plant species. Some relevant provisions include Section 17(a), which prohibits picking and uprooting specified plants, thus helping to protect plants that are likely to be damaged. A notification to that effect can be issued for the damage, destruction, or acquisition of plant species. Even the cultivation of certain specified plant species without a license is prohibited under Section 17(c) of the Wildlife Protection Act. This legislation also provides special provisions for the protection of plant species under schedule VI and takes care of flora and fauna. Chapter III A of this Act specifically deals with wild flora, and there are many supporting provisions under this chapter for the protection of specified plants.

In recent times, the Indian government has taken several initiatives to protect plant species. Being a signatory to the WTO and TRIPS agreements, we have enacted the ‘Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2001’ [79]. This act aims to encourage the development of new plant varieties and protect the rights and privileges of farmers and breeders. A registration scheme has been developed to facilitate the process. The government’s efforts in this regard demonstrate their concern for the protection of plant species and their new varieties. However, we must also pay attention to our traditional plants, which are highly threatened due to their medicinal and commercial value in the market. The “Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996” empowers the Gram Sabha as the owner of minor forest produce (MFP). As owners, Gram Sabha can ensure the protection of trees or plants as minor forest produce and take necessary initiatives and steps for the conservation of endangered plant species. They can also impose restrictions on the collection or extraction of plant material or products. As part of the protection strategy, the state government can make suitable rules and regulations for the protection of such plant species. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002, is another legislation that has direct provisions for the protection of biological resources, such as medicinal resources, pharmaceutical drugs, ornamental plants, and diversity in genes, species, and ecosystems. This legislation makes special provisions for the protection of such plants that are likely to become extinct.

The Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted on 22 March 1992, in Nairobi. Subsequently, the Biological Diversity Act of 2002 was enacted, which, under Section 3, establishes the National Biodiversity and State Biodiversity Boards for the conservation of biological diversity and its sustainable use. The current Act includes various regulatory measures to grant permission to use biological resources for transferring knowledge, use resources for commercial purposes, and apply for intellectual property [61]. However, the unrestricted exploitation of natural resources also leads to environmental vulnerability. Therefore, society has a responsibility to protect the existing and future use of diversity, as well as the genetic biodiversity of species that are necessary for their continued existence [80]. According to Section 7 of this Act, the State Biodiversity Board restricts access to biological material for commercial purposes, but Indians are required to inform the board before obtaining such material. However, cultivators, growers, Vaidyas, and Hakims are exempt from this requirement. India is a rich source of medicinal plants, and protecting these plant species for future use and experimentation is crucial. Unfortunately, traditional knowledge and conservation of these plant species are not being taken seriously. There is a significant gap between the objectives and the actual implementation of policies for the conservation of endangered plant species [81]. As part of the conservation efforts, there is a need to raise awareness among local communities about these plant species and their medicinal and commercial value. A report submitted by the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations in December 2000 by Richard Wilder noted that traditional medicinal plants have greater pharmacological value than Western medicine, making them highly valuable in the international market [82]. Generating such awareness can be achieved through various public platforms. Proper and adequate documentation of plant species is crucial and must be maintained [83]. Along with legislative measures, we need to focus on habitat management and employ sustainable and proper supervision at frequent intervals [84]. It is important to note that conservation of plant species cannot be considered in isolation, as it involves political, social, and scientific dimensions [85]. Furthermore, the scarcity of resources and manpower must be taken into consideration, given the large number of endangered plant species. The National Biodiversity Act of 2002 provides a platform for protecting endangered plant species, but it does not specify whether it has an overriding effect on other legislation, such as the Wildlife Protection Act and Forest Act, in case of conflict or dispute [86]. Another drawback of this legislation is the lack of domain knowledge of inhabitants who are not given strong control over their resources. Since this Act is a national legislation, it has no extra-territorial jurisdiction to deal with conflicting issues of interest, leaving many transboundary issues uncovered [35]. The National Biodiversity Authority is a central authority established under Section 8 of the Biological Diversity Act. However, it has been observed that these biodiversity authorities face resource and manpower constraints, hindering their ability to perform their duties effectively. Despite being fundamental legislation, current right holders lack the capacity to protect and defend their rights [42]. The Act also lacks a robust mechanism for protecting traditional and local knowledge, which is essential for meeting the objectives of the legislation and protecting biological diversity. To protect endangered plant species, it is suggested that, in addition to project impact assessments, there should be a biodiversity impact assessment [54]. Decentralization of power is necessary for the effective implementation of the Biological Diversity Act and should extend to the local level. As part of this decentralization, biodiversity management committees must maintain a biodiversity register at the local level. Unfortunately, in many states, such local management committees have not been formed, and registers are not properly maintained.

The overall legislative mechanism provided under the Biological Diversity Act indicates that while it is fundamental legislation for protecting biodiversity, endangered plants do not receive the same level of attention and protection. However, it is essential to acknowledge that endangered plants are equally important as endangered animals and require equal attention. Conserving endangered plant species is highly relevant to people’s livelihoods. As part of the conservation strategy, people are also impacted financially through displacement from protected areas. Therefore, there is a need to strike a balance between conservation and human needs [81]. The Biological Diversity Act establishes various authorities to protect endangered plants, including the mention of local bodies. However, there are no specific provisions regarding the involvement of local communities who are the actual custodians of indigenous resources in the forest. This legislation also imposes responsibility on the central and state governments to formulate and maintain biodiversity conservation and protection. The government is expected to supervise the final outcome of various projects and their adverse repercussions, if any. Another obstacle to this legislation is the lack of inclusive education and awareness of the value of biological resources. To create better awareness, the government can play a crucial role among indigenous communities in terms of local resource protection and preservation. The Act aims to decentralize power at the national, state, and local levels. However, actual decentralization of power to local bodies is fraught with difficulties in terms of management, supervision, and collaboration. While the Biological Diversity Management Committee is crucial for protecting valuable biological resources, the Act does not define its composition or provide details on how the local body will manage and inform the committee. Furthermore, the legislation lacks coordination between the management committee and the expert group representing the state government with respect to protecting and conserving biological diversity. Another procedural difficulty is the inadequate maintenance of the biodiversity register, documentation of biological resources, and its minor detailing, identification, updating, and compilation of data handling, which are critical conservation techniques [85].

The National Biodiversity Authority and State Biodiversity Authority lack representation of local communities and indigenous people. This results in a lack of actual decentralization and transparency, which hinders the effective implementation of the Biological Diversity Act [86]. The local inhabitants and communities are the real custodians of these resources, and these resources have been the source of their livelihood for generations. Therefore, it is necessary to protect their rights. Section 38 of the Biological Diversity Act mandates the Indian government to notify highly endangered plants. Additionally, several policy parameters and strategies are developed by the National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) for the protection, suitable harvesting, economic cultivation, research and development, processing, and marketing of raw materials in the medicinal plant sector. Similarly, the government has signed international agreements to ensure the conservation of endangered plants and animals and prevent them from being put at any risk of extinction. It is estimated that around 28,000 plant species are at potential risk and high risk of extinction [87].

India needs a robust and systematic approach for the conservation of endangered plant species, as implemented in the USA, UK, and Canada. In the USA, the Endangered Species Act of 1973 was enforced to recover endangered plant species through well-coordinated efforts. This Act provides for the listing of severely endangered species. In contrast, India lacks such focused attention and targeted efforts towards conserving plant species. In the USA, 47 out of 1158 endangered plant species have been recovered in recent years and delisted from the endangered plant category [88]. However, in India, developmental activities and industrialization, including mega projects, pose a significant threat to such endangered plant species. Excessive harvesting and fragmentation resulting from such activities reduce the population size of threatened plant species, leading to a loss of alleles and overall genetic impoverishment [88]. Hence, the conservation strategy should include legal and non-legal measures to protect threatened plant species, such as Safed Musli. Ayurveda, a traditional medical science, strongly relies on the rich sources of herbs, shrubs, and endangered plant species for the manufacture and production of medicine. The growing importance of such plant species has resulted in their commercialization and worldwide use. Traditional knowledge and medical value of these plant species, and the information available to local communities, need better protection. Current legislative protection or regulating authorities are not sufficient for the protection of endangered plant species. Therefore, we need to enact a specific law to conserve our traditional medical knowledge of plant species, following sustainable cultivation practices. Additionally, the excessive use of these species for pharmaceutical purposes needs to be regulated. The local people must be involved in knowledge sharing and preserving traditional knowledge about these plant species for future generations.

5.8. A Balanced Approach with Legal and Non-Legal Measures for Conservation of Endangered Plant Species—Safed Musli

The ecological balance and development are crucial to ensure that natural resources are not exploited for social development [89]. The government should carefully consider the diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes. Mining development should be in harmony with the conservation of trees and forests [90]. Besides, there are several allied legislations indirectly related to the protection of threatened plant species. Figure 3 displays different legislative frameworks for the conservation of endangered plant species in India. A specific policy or legal mechanism is required to protect plants such as Safed Musli. Stringent legal measures and strict prohibition on the overexploitation of this plant may help in conservation. Such plant species can be preserved in their natural habitat without human intervention. However, the government policy concerning Safed Musli is liable for unsustainable resource use, which widens the gap between the affluent and the poor. The mechanism of sustainable forest management is not being followed, which leads to excessive collection of forest resources by forest dwellers and over-cultivation due to medicinal values [90,91,92,93,94].

The Supreme Court of India plays a decisive role in matters related to the environment and biological diversity. It has issued directions in many cases to safeguard forests and protect ecological balance [95]. The National Forest Policy of 1988 also provides directions for the conservation of forest resources as industrialization and unplanned development have increased pressure on forest management and conservation. Rapid industrialization and unplanned development are responsible for deforestation, and the protection of plant species requires strong commitment and community support. Environmental laws in the country primarily focus on preventing pollution of water, air, environment, and animals, such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974, Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981, and the Environmental Protection Act of 1986. Furthermore, despite enacting numerous laws for the protection of forests, the conservation of endangered plant species is often overlooked by influential policy mechanisms, resulting in many plant species being at risk. Although, sustainable development has been adopted as a policy parameter for protecting the environment, the inclination of environmental policy does not demonstrate an equivalent concern for endangered plant species. We cannot afford to jeopardize our abundant source of resources due to disregard for endangered plant species and the lack of effective mechanisms for their protection.

The Supreme Court has noted that the objective of environmental legislation in the country is to strike a balance between industrialization and the environment [96]. We also need to develop specific legislative policy mechanisms since the existing laws and formal legal and regulatory mechanisms are inadequate to bring about the desired changes in society. It is essential to raise public awareness and encourage participation of people in the conservation of our plant species [97]. In many judgments, the Supreme Court emphasized the importance of better implementation of laws, public awareness, and participation to achieve the goal of environmental justice. The conservation of Safed Musli, which is on the verge of extinction, should be given top priority in the conservation policy. According to the Indian Forest Act, Safed Musli is a forest product, and therefore, the existing control mechanisms should supervise and regulate the illegal carrying and transportation of Safed Musli [16].

6. Conclusions

Chlorophytum tuberosum possesses great medicinal value and is used for treating various ailments. The concern for its conservation arose due to low productivity and commercial exploitation. Efforts should be made to standardize, accelerate, and popularize commercial and conventional cultivation of C. tuberosum. It has traditionally been used as medicine for various sexual disorders, but it is now a critically endangered plant listed in the highest risk category. Though, we are using eco-centric and scientific methods for conservation, better implementation requires a sense of responsibility and commitment from the common people and those dwelling nearby the protected forests. We need to adopt a sustainable lifestyle and educate the community about conserving such plant species through community participation. In this regard, overexploitation, human intervention, and excessive grazing need to be reduced. We have enacted many more legislations to protect the wholesomeness of the environment. However, we lack specific legislation to protect endangered plant species, including Safed Musli. The Biological Diversity Act of 2002 has a few shortcomings, including issues with decentralization of power and resources, lack of transparency, and inadequate public participation. The procedural and strategic approaches for conserving endangered plant species are also missing some key components, such as proper documentation, handling of data, and involvement of the public in conservation techniques. Therefore, we need more focused and systematic approaches to conserving plants, including Safed Musli. While the national medicinal plant board and other regulating authorities are using scientific techniques to conserve C. tuberosum, more incentives and schemes for conservation, farming, and public participation are necessary. Furthermore, specific legislation for the conservation of such endangered plant species is essential.