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Article

Digital Tools for Water Resource Management as a Part of a Green Economy in Rural Areas

by
Iwona Józefowicz
and
Hanna Michniewicz-Ankiersztajn
*
Faculty of Geographical Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(6), 5231; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065231
Submission received: 9 February 2023 / Revised: 6 March 2023 / Accepted: 13 March 2023 / Published: 15 March 2023
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Abstract

:
In the face of constantly progressing climate and environmental changes that lead to hydrological droughts and, in consequence, to permanent water deficiency, the administration and management of water resources have become priority elements of local policy in rural areas. New water management methods are based on numerous digital tools and solutions. They allow, for instance, the optimising of water consumption, or the accelerating and increasing in the effectiveness of communication with local communities. This governance model fits into the green economy. This paper presents digital tools and ways of using them for water management in rural communities. We assumed that a higher degree of the socio-economic development in rural communities affects the use of high technology in the local governance. According to surveys, suburban communities featuring a higher level of urbanisation more often invest in ‘smart’ technologies, reflected by a more rational management of water resources.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Smart management of rural areas is understood as utilising high technology in local resource management, as well as building and supporting the local social capital and social innovation through collaboration between the local community and the local government [1]. This can be said to create a kind of socio-technical and/or innovative system composed of actors (e.g., residents, entrepreneurs, research institutions, or local authorities), knowledge, and documentation (laws, codes of conduct, procedures, etc.) [2]. These activities are part of the idea of sustainable development, which has been permanently implemented at various levels of local government management. One such innovation is the use of e-government tools. Even though, at present, local administrative units (LAU) most frequently follow the Local Government 3.0 concept (elimination of barriers to development), they also undertake clear measures for transition to Local Government 4.0 and Web 4.0. They assume utilising advanced digital tools and technologies (such as fast broadband connections, and the Internet of things) to enhance the efficiency of administration of the existing infrastructure and implementation of sustainable management solutions and, consequently, improve the quality of local community life [3,4]. It is particularly essential that such smart tools are implemented in the context of water resource management, especially in view of the continually progressing climate and environmental changes. These changes lead to permanent water deficiency and hydrological drought. The key problems related to water management in rural areas include the: (1) availability of resources (hydrological drought, low groundwater level, absence of small retention); (2) increasing costs of drawing, supplying, and using water; quality and development of the water supply infrastructure; drinking water quality; increasing number of households connected to the infrastructure in suburban areas leading to problems with water supply; illegal use of water resources, and illegal discharge of effluents; (3) sustainable development; increasing wastewater treatment costs; ensuring sufficient quality of surface waters; preventing surface water and groundwater pollution by agriculture and industry; sewage; and (4) utilising the existing resources for leisure (tourism) activities, with active protection of water resources. In this light, the administration and management of water resources are simultaneous priorities for the local policy in rural areas. The following questions arose in the course of our research:
(1)
Do the methods for managing the rural communities in the Bydgoszcz District fit into the concept of e-government?
(2)
What is the level of implementation of the e-government concept in the analysed units?
(3)
Which type of digital technology is used in water resources management?
Responses to these research questions made it possible to accomplish the objective of our study, that is, an attempt at classifying the communities in the district of Bydgoszcz with reference to the concept of e-government, using an example of innovative digital tools applied in water and sewage management.

2. Theoretical Background and Research Hypotheses

The World Wide Web is an essential part of the present-day Internet. It can be defined as a peculiar techno-social system in which people create and work together in a digital environment using advanced web technologies [5] (p. 34) and [6,7]. A rapid development of technology made it possible to create subsequent Web generations—from the simplest examples (Web 1.0) to highly autonomous concept-phase Webs 6 and 7, oriented towards cyberbiology, or an independent entity [5] (p. 42).
The concept of e-government (also known as: e-office, e-governance, and e-administration) redefined the existing interactions related to information, communications, and transactions with citizens and businesses [8,9]. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2003) [10] defines e-government as the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs), and particularly the Internet and related networking technologies, to achieve better government and improve the quality of services. Electronic administration comprises five stages of interaction: dissemination of information, communication with citizens, online transactions, integration of government agencies, and participation of citizens [11]. This concept presumes the existence of several generations of e-administration supported by commonly used contemporary digital tools. For instance, the second-generation web (Web 2.0) allows web users to interact with websites, so they have simultaneously become the recipients and creators of the content of such websites. Furthermore, Web 2.0 facilitates interaction with other users of websites or social media by offering a possibility to establish communication, converse in real time (sending text messages, voice messages, images, and using messengers), and to share and receive other users’ resources (e.g., photographs) [12] (p. 143). Subsequent web generations make it possible to improve communication between network users [13,14], create virtual communities, and—with Web 4.0—create symbiotic man–machine interactions, the so-called Internet of things (IoT). Each subsequent generation of e-government features increased virtual functionality and communication and is associated with the national government and local governments following the rules of transparency, participation and collaboration with stakeholders, that is, citizens and businesses [8,15].
The digital tools described above are part of the concept of the green economy, which reflects the idea of sustainable development and is based on its principles [16]. It combines economic development activities with environmental responsibility, while improving human well-being and social justice [17]. It also contributes to the global debate regarding the social and economic changes needed to achieve environmental sustainability, emissions reductions, social justice, and stable economies [18].
Thus, in the context of the analysed phenomenon (water resource management), the function of digital tools is disseminating information, communication, and promotion. They also ensure efficient (effective/smart) management of the existing water resources (Figure 1). Social media based on the read-write web concept play a special role [19]. The opinion expressed in [20,21] that the increasing expectations of citizens and the need for innovation in government institutions have made social media an important element of e-administration is in agreement with this position.
The current information society—deeming access to information as the superior good and using Web tools on a daily basis—requires full and instant access to information, a possibility of communicating with the institutions directly, reducing the time for completing formalities, and making fast online payments.
The above-mentioned tools are an element of so-called good governance, that is, “high-quality and properly functioning public administration with an integrated element of subsidiarity, allowing for the participation of the citizens and respecting democratic values and the rule of contemporary modern state” [22] (p. 7).
In light of the above-mentioned facts, we assumed that access to new digital tools is determined by the degree of digitalisation in the area, which contributes to increasing the efficient management of a local administration unit and facilitates communication with local residents (H1). In addition, digital tools can significantly support the management of water resources in the analysed area, particularly given the deteriorating hydrological situation (H2). The use of new technologies implies the development of social interactions and neighbourly relations in the virtual space (H3).

3. Materials and Methods

The analysed area within the Bydgoszcz District is situated in the central part of the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship. It covers eight rural and urban-rural communities (with a total surface area of 1395 km2) located around the city of Bydgoszcz. About 95,000 inhabitants live in the rural areas of the district, and the rate of urbanisation is less than 28% (Figure 2). However, in two communities: Białe Błota and Osielsko, featuring a high rate of local specialisation in non-market services, the level of urbanisation is advanced. Next to demographic processes, these areas are characterised by fast economic growth and saturation of their space with elements of urban infrastructure [23].
The area of surface waters within the analysed communities is relatively small (only ca. 3% of the total area of the district), and flowing surface waters account for more than 80%. In 2020, the intake of water for household use in the rural areas of the Bydgoszcz District amounted to 9289.8 dam3, and the consumption of water per capita oscillated around 67 m3. The highest intake of water (also for industrial use) was noted in the most urbanised rural communities, that is, Białe Błota and Osielsko (1268 dam3 and 1087.8 dam3, respectively), and the consumption of water per capita (in m3) in those communities was lower than the average figure for the whole district, amounting to 53.6 m3 in Białe Błota and 58.2 m3 in Osielsko. Less than half of the rural population in the district used the services provided by wastewater treatment plants (49% in 2021). The exception was the community of Osielsko, where more than 75% of inhabitants used a sewage system to supply sewage to the wastewater treatment plant.
The study objectives were accomplished using qualitative methods such as case study and desk research, mathematical and statistical methods, review of literature, as well as the Internet and field queries. During the multi-stage Internet query, first of all, the full name of the local administration unit (LAU) was entered in Google Search. This provided us with access to official websites of the LAUs (according to the Access to Public Information Act of 2001) [24].
Each target website was examined for links to social media. Where no links were found, the second search was run on Facebook. We selected this solution as, out of all the available social media, Facebook offers a possibility of the most sustainable, specific interaction between the local residents and “their” local authorities [9] (p. 27). In addition, we used multi-attribute ranking of data with a high ranking potential. Assuming X𝑖 to be a non-standardised feature (𝑖 = 1,2,...,𝑛), the sum of the standardised features is:
R n = ∑ i = 1 n X i − μ σ = 1 σ ∑ i = 1 n ( X i − μ ) = 1 σ ∑ i = 1 n X i − n μ
The study also made use of k-means, which is an iterative optimisation method often applied in socio-economic geography for identifying units with similar socio-economic features [25,26,27]. This paper applied k-means clustering to determine how similar the communities in the Bydgoszcz District were in terms of digitalisation level and use of digital technologies for water resources management (we identified three clusters corresponding to low, medium, and high levels of informatisation and technology used in management).
The analysis covered the smart management of water resources by local administration units and institutions in suburban communities forming the District of Bydgoszcz. Four groups of features were selected for analysis. The first group is associated with the level of digitalisation in the area, the second refers to water resources in the communities and the collecting, processing, and providing of access to information related to the management and operation of the water and sewage network (e.g., websites, social media, breakdown and emergency notices, e-customer service, e-invoices etc.). The third group comprises features referring to water and sewage investments in the study area and IT projects (development of IT networks, smart technologies such as metering, expansion of the water and sewage system, and land improvement). By contrast, group four analyses characteristics related to the local population’s activity in the virtual space on social media (pages, private groups, and public groups on Facebook). The collected data were standardised and, afterwards, multi-attribute ranking was applied to determine the ranks of communities showing various levels of smart technologies in use. The data were also used for identifying similarities between the analysed spatial units by k-means clustering (identification of communities forming a specific cluster). The results are presented as a choropleth (cf. Figure 3).

4. Results

4.1. Classification According to e-Government’s Generation

One of the main conditions for using high technology is the level of digitalisation in the area. The study area shows a great variety of that level. Considering broadband Internet access, the most favourable conditions are in the communities of Solec Kujawski and Białe Błota (wherein three-quarters of the buildings are within its range) (Table 1). This is similar for access to technology.
In regards the use of digital tools in water resource management, all the communities in the district follow the principles of the second-generation e-government and Web 2.0 digital tools. Białe Błota (cluster 1) is the only community using more advanced tools characteristic of subsequent generations of digital tools (Web 3 and Web 4) and of e-government 3.0 (Table 2).

4.2. Smart Management of Water Reources: A Case Study: Białe Błota Community

The community of Białe Błota is situated in the western part of the Bydgoszcz District. It is the largest local administrative unit in terms of the population (more than 23,000 inhabitants). The community consists of 11 villages and covers a total area of 122 km2. Surface waters account for 0.8% of the total surface area of the community, and 69% are flowing waters (the Noteć River, and the Bydgoszcz Canal and the Upper Noteć Canal with accompanying water facilities), while 31% are still waters (mainly ponds). The community also has relatively abundant groundwater resources. Groundwater for household and commercial use is drawn from two water intakes in the villages of Ciele and Łochowo (Figure 4).
Surface waters have an economic function (in the community there are, for instance, a fishery, a small hydropower plant, the Bydgoszcz Canal and the Upper Noteć Canal, forming part of the E40 Inland Waterway), and local inhabitants also use them for recreation.
The efficient management of the existing water resources is one of the priorities in the development strategy for the community of Białe Błota until 2025. Strategic objective no. 1 (Development of technical infrastructure—ensuring convenient conditions for living and investing) comprises several measures aimed at, for instance, developing the water and sewage infrastructure, since ten years ago, when the strategy was created, more than 40% of respondents had a low or very low opinion of the water and sewage infrastructure in the community, and according to 67% of the surveyed population, investments in that area were very significant (the community’s development strategy). In parallel, the local government focuses on boosting the competitiveness of the area in terms of the economy and housing by developing its technical infrastructure (strategic objective no. 3: efficient management of the community—ensuring good governance and safety and creating favourable conditions for running business activity). Thus, projects to prevent digital exclusion (construction of the optical fibre network funded by European Union grants, and the location of 5G mobile telephone transmitters in the community) have been implemented in the community for years.
The analysis of available data implies that efficient local governance in the community of Białe Błota is supported by digital tools at two levels: the official (top-down) and social (unofficial—bottom-up) level. The first one comprises local governance institutions in the community (such as the community office) and specialized levels are directly involved in water and sewage management (such as the Water Supply and Municipal Services Company—ZWiUK). Both make use of the Internet as a carrier of information and a space for broadly understood communications. They also develop the so-called Internet of things (IoT). To this end, they make use of websites and social media management. The second level is mainly associated with the activity of local communities and includes the exchange of information and opinions regarding the operations of the water company and emergency situations, but also, focuses on building neighbourly relations concerning using the waterfront.
Analysing the official uses of digital tools, the community of Białe Błota, similar to other communities in the study area, fulfils its obligation to share information in the Public Information Bulletin (https://bip.bialeblota.pl/ accessed on 25 November 2022) and, like most (75%) other communities in the District of Bydgoszcz, runs its own website (https://bialeblota.pl/ accessed on 25 November 2022). To the extent analysed, this mainly refers to the dissemination of information and the promotion of the natural values of the community (including its water resources).
Previous surveys demonstrated that social media differs from conventional media in three ways: (1) social media facilitates two-way interaction with a large number of people at the same time; (2) businesses and their customers have a direct connection; and (3) social media platforms are free of charge, so they are viable in terms of marketing and communications [28] (p. 39). Mobile technologies, such as smartphones, tablets, and computers, are entwined with social media, making it possible to distribute text, sound, videos and images quickly and supporting posting such information on various social media platforms [9] (p. 24). Local governments use Facebook groups and pages as a tool for communicating with the local community, promoting areas attractive in terms of tourism and leisure, and for distributing information on the operations of the community (Photo 2). This corresponds to the second generation of e-government.
According to the Act on Collective Water Supply and Collective Discharge of Wastewater [29], communities have an obligation to ensure that their water supply and sewage facilities are capable of supplying the required volume of water at sufficient pressure, discharging wastewater in a continuing and reliable manner, and ensuring that the supplied water and discharged wastewater are of good quality (art. 5 p. 1). However, it is the governing authority that determines the quality of collaboration between the water and sewage company and the consumer. The Water Supply and Municipal Services Company (ZWiUK) in Białe Błota, offering innovative digital solutions, stands out from other water management institutions in the study area. In order to meet the expectations of customers, the company set up a user-friendly informative website. This is where essential information on water and sewage management is posted, along with documents such as terms and conditions, tariffs, service price lists, and forms and methods of payment, etc. (Figure 5). The eBOK portal is a user-friendly system for filing single distribution orders (PZD) and retrieving operational metering data (not forming grounds for clearing) from any place and at any time on a 24 h basis. Operating in the field of water and sewage management, the company also applies smart technological solutions corresponding to the third generation of e-gov and Web 4. The network managed by ZWiUK Białe Błota is divided into six water supply zones. Ongoing measurements relying on 5G sensors contribute to the rational management of water resources and prevent potential abuse by dishonest consumers. The presented solutions rely on the so-called Internet of things (IoT).
Another solution is Eco Sanity, that is, an intuitive IT platform for ensuring stricter control and monitoring of septic tanks, and the control of the circulation of liquid waste in the community, for instance, by registration (assessment) of effluent discharge. It also facilitates the efficient counting and registration of septic tanks in the community and the issuing of wastewater disposal orders. This tool is useful for the governing authorities, local population, and waste removal businesses. The solution guarantees efficient sewage management in regards to receiving, transporting, and discharging liquid waste.
The community of Białe Błota follows the European recommendations for metropolitan areas to protect the environment against sewage from septic tanks, requiring local administration units to ensure that all sewage from septic tanks is disposed of to wastewater treatment plants, in compliance with the relevant directive.
The administrator of the community of Białe Błota is a great supporter of the initiatives and submitted an application for EU funds under the Integrated Territorial Investment Programme for the purchase and installation of remote metering equipment for all water service connections in the community [30].
At the social level, digital tools are mainly used in social media. These are web-based technology platforms oriented towards synchronous and asynchronous human interaction, reflecting a complex system of connections between people who share information, ideas, observations, beliefs, myths, and gossip, etc. in real time. As a result, everything is connected: the people, information, data, events and places, all of them with multiple correlations, forming a huge aggregated social network [31]. This corresponds to Web 2.0. Such platforms become a common place for developing communities, including the local community, which facilitates building relationships among members of the community. They rely on four pillars: (1) connectivity, (2) conversations, (3) content creation, and (4) collaboration (Ang [1]). Social participation statistics are a source of important observations on conversations and the creation of content by the community [28].
Compared to residents of other villages in the District of Bydgoszcz, the community of Białe Błota is active on social media. Numerous public groups with a high number of active members on Facebook are particularly notable. Social media is used as an alternative space for exchanging information. As of 23 August 2022, as many as 27 social media groups (public and private) and 3 official websites existed. The posts referred to broadly understood affairs and issues of the community and its inhabitants, including topics related to water and sewage management and water resources. Referring to the above-mentioned pillars, interactions cover the areas of:
(a)
connectivity—flow of information about water supply system breakdowns;
(b)
conversations—discussion and comments on information posted by local administration institutions and the Water Supply and Municipal Services Company;
(c)
content creation—e.g., kayaking event advertising, business offers, etc.;
(d)
collaboration—local initiatives such as winter swimming groups (“Winter Swimmers Łochowo” page) or clean-ups in the area of the Noteć Canal, etc.

5. Discussion

Authors working on green economy issues point out that the implementation of sustainable development principles relies heavily on the use of new, often innovative methods aimed at optimising decision-making and management processes [32,33,34]. Moreover, it makes it possible to implement several democratic measures related, for instance, to local planning, key policies on local services and general decisions on expenditures [9,35]. Dynamic changes in the use of the broadly understood technology necessitate that e-government activities be taken by local administration units. This usually offers a chance to increase openness and transparency in public administration, and to support efficient management, monitoring, and responding to potential issues, including those related to infrastructure [36,37,38]. In the member states of the European Union, the implementation of e-government upgrades good governance [22].
Studies conducted in the District of Bydgoszcz have corroborated the all-European trend related to local governance.
In response to our research questions (“Do the methods for managing the rural communities in the Bydgoszcz District fit into the concept of e-government?” and “What is the level of e-government concept’s implementation in the analysed units?”), following OECD’s definition of e-government, it can be assumed that all the communities in the study area fit into the concept of e-government. However, the level of implementation of new technologies in local governance varies between communities. It is largely dependent on the level of digitalisation in the area and on human capital. On the one hand, it is particularly significant to inhabitants of rural areas and younger citizens (as it allows the local government to interact with a typically ‘unreachable’ class of citizens) [39]. On the other hand, it undoubtedly stimulates rural development [40].
The research made it possible to identify two groups of digital tools used in local governance (Figure 5).
The first group comprised Web 2.0-based tools (websites and social media). According to Atari, Stewart-Weeks, and McCall [41], social media enhance the transparency of local governments by improving the level of service and providing citizens with access to information. Such an innovative governance model utilising the options and functions of Web 2.0 contributes to increasing the effectiveness of the public sector [42] (p. 5). Simultaneously, studies show that most relationships do not exist exclusively on the Internet. Rather, electronic communication is a supplement and reinforcement to other relationships, but does not replace them [43,44] and [45] (p. 5). Access to virtual reality diversifies the forms of activity undertaken by the local population and the pro-social attitudes that require the engagement of citizens [46]. Similar engagement is observed using the example of the third sector’s cyberactivity analysis. This phenomenon can be considered in the aspect of developing a civil society [47,48,49,50].
The second group consisted of tools using Web 3.0 and Web 4.0 (applications and sensors). Simultaneously, the survey identified the functions of respective tools in e-government (Figure 5). Less advanced digital tools are mainly used for information, promotion, and communication, while those utilising high technologies are used for smart management and communication. Implementing suitable digital tools offers the possibility of using public services in an integrated, safe, and efficient manner, based on the principle of interoperability [51]. Simultaneously, the development of e-government and new generations of its supporting digital tools, driven by the increasing number of users, seems to be a stimulus to continued development of the Web [39].
The question about the type of digital technology used in water resources management could be answered following a detailed analysis of the source material. It seems that new technologies used in the community of Białe Błota are consistent with those utilised by other member states and are largely dependent on the level of digitalisation. Solutions relying on the Internet of things are applied in various areas of water resources management, for instance, in cities of the European Union where “the system, comprising electronic modules (overlays) installed on water meters, allows to monitor an instantaneous water consumption; it also detects and stores emergency alerts or any abnormal situations that are observed in the system” [52] (p. 888), and in monitoring the flood-banks [53]. Simultaneously, they are used for communication with the local population (e-invoice, emergency reports, water quality reporting, etc.), which enhances the standards of Good Governance [22]. They are used by the local government of the community as well as by the water company ZWiUK Białe Błota. Furthermore, these entities use social media as an equally significant channel for exchanging information. Thus, the statement that “Community relationships are facilitated through the use of social media. This enhances relationships between organization representatives and the community” [54,55] seems justified. Inhabitants share information about water supply system breakdowns at respective locations and streets. They confront the community’s plans with the current situation and comment on measures taken by the authorities with regard to water management. Social media is often a carrier of information about spontaneous recreational activities at the communities’ waterfront. These include winter swimming or kayaking events. There are also public groups promoting the natural and tourism values of the community where photographs of attractive sights are frequently posted next to information about local initiatives.
This corroborates the statement of Maultasch et al. [56] that a social media icon on a website is not a proof, but rather an indication, of the potential use of specific tools for internal and external organisational purposes.

6. Conclusions

Our research has corroborated the first and the second hypothesis (H1, H2). The highest level of digitalisation is observed in the rural community of Białe Błota and in Solec Kujawski (urban-rural community). Water resource management in Białe Błota relies mainly on new digital tools. This is the only one of the analysed communities that, using solutions corresponding to Web 4.0, was classified as the third generation of e-government. It uses digital tools for, among other things, monitoring the water supply network (e.g., sensors). In regards the last hypothesis (H3), high technologies foster the development of a new type of social networking relying on cyberspace, which in the community of Białe Błota, is demonstrated by high activity of the local population on social media. The Internet has increasingly become a part of our daily routine and matters of everyday life. Only one of all the communities in the Bydgoszcz District has successively implemented the e-government concept assumptions and innovative technological solutions in regards to water management.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.J. and H.M.-A.; methodology, I.J. and H.M.-A.; software, I.J. and H.M.-A.; validation, I.J. and H.M.-A.; formal analysis, I.J. and H.M.-A.; investigation, I.J. and H.M.-A.; resources, I.J. and H.M.-A.; data curation, I.J. and H.M.-A.; writing—original draft preparation, I.J. and H.M.-A.; writing—review and editing, I.J. and H.M.-A.; visualization, I.J. and H.M.-A.; supervision, I.J. and H.M.-A.; project administration, I.J. and H.M.-A.; funding acquisition, I.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Supported by a grant from the Ministry of Education and Science given to Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz in 2023 (Poland).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Figure 1. Functions of digital tools used by local governments in water resources management. Source: own elaboration.
Figure 1. Functions of digital tools used by local governments in water resources management. Source: own elaboration.
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Figure 2. Location of the study area (rural and urban rural communities of Bydgoszcz District) in Kujawsko–Pomorskie voivodeship. 1—Koronowo; 2—Dobrcz; 3—Osielsko; 4—Dąbrowa Chełmińska; 5—Solec Kujawski; 6—Nowa Wieś Wielka; 7—Białe Błota; 8-Sicienko. Source: own elaboration.
Figure 2. Location of the study area (rural and urban rural communities of Bydgoszcz District) in Kujawsko–Pomorskie voivodeship. 1—Koronowo; 2—Dobrcz; 3—Osielsko; 4—Dąbrowa Chełmińska; 5—Solec Kujawski; 6—Nowa Wieś Wielka; 7—Białe Błota; 8-Sicienko. Source: own elaboration.
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Figure 3. Similarity of municipalities in terms of the level of digital development in the study area (k-means method). Source: own elaboration.
Figure 3. Similarity of municipalities in terms of the level of digital development in the study area (k-means method). Source: own elaboration.
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Figure 4. Distribution of surface waters in the Białe Błota community area. Source: own elaboration.
Figure 4. Distribution of surface waters in the Białe Błota community area. Source: own elaboration.
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Figure 5. Functions of digital tools used in water resources management in the community of Białe Błota and their classification regarding the concept of e-government. Source: own elaboration.
Figure 5. Functions of digital tools used in water resources management in the community of Białe Błota and their classification regarding the concept of e-government. Source: own elaboration.
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Table
Table 1. Utilisation of smart technology in the communities of the Bydgoszcz District.
Table 1. Utilisation of smart technology in the communities of the Bydgoszcz District.
No.CommunityTotal ScoreRank
1Białe Błota161.794I
2Dąbrowa Chełmińska78.4067VIII
3Dobrcz99.3001IV
4Koronowo96.0222VI
5Nowa Wieś Wielka93.663VII
6Osielsko115.452III
7Sicienko97.727V
8Solec Kujawski134.062II
Source: own elaboration.
Table
Table 2. Level of development of digital tools and e-government in water management in the communities of the Bydgoszcz District.
Table 2. Level of development of digital tools and e-government in water management in the communities of the Bydgoszcz District.
CommunityCyber Tools’ Generatione-Government’s Generation
Web 2.0Web 3.0Web 4.02.03.0
Białe Błotaxxxxx
Dąbrowa Chełmińskaxx
Koronowoxx
Nowa Wieś Wielkaxx
Osielskoxx
Sicienkoxx
Solec Kujawskixx
Source: own elaboration. x—parameter occurs.
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Józefowicz, I.; Michniewicz-Ankiersztajn, H. Digital Tools for Water Resource Management as a Part of a Green Economy in Rural Areas. Sustainability 2023, 15, 5231. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065231

AMA Style

Józefowicz I, Michniewicz-Ankiersztajn H. Digital Tools for Water Resource Management as a Part of a Green Economy in Rural Areas. Sustainability. 2023; 15(6):5231. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065231

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Józefowicz, Iwona, and Hanna Michniewicz-Ankiersztajn. 2023. "Digital Tools for Water Resource Management as a Part of a Green Economy in Rural Areas" Sustainability 15, no. 6: 5231. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065231

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