2.1. Online Education
Online learning has been increasing in the last two decades. Especially since the outbreak of COVID-19, online teaching has become the fundamental form of teaching and learning. A study conducted a systematic literature review of online education research from 2009 to 2018. In a systematic review of 619 research articles on online learning, researchers examined publication trends and patterns, research themes, methods, and settings [
2]. They noted that online learner characteristics had received much attention, while limited research had been conducted on classroom and organizational levels and teacher characteristics.
Recent research has integrated technologies such as virtual reality into online teaching and learning. A survey analyzed the effectiveness of virtual reality technology and online learning [
14]. Online teaching systems compensate for interruptions in physical instruction, and students can use virtual reality technology for practical skills training. The solutions during COVID-19—distance, online teaching, learning, and assessment—lasted longer than initially expected, frustrating students, parents, and teachers alike. Nevertheless, online teaching and learning strengthen the digital skills of students and teachers in a technology-led future [
15]. The educational process needs to change and be made more practical through technology. Online teaching and learning can change the future of education if implemented in industry, universities, and government [
16]. The importance of online education has become more evident: in the long run, technology must continue to be adopted to meet the equitable learning needs of students.
Online teaching and learning models confer new advantages and disadvantages, as there is no perfect way to teach [
17]. Online education offers efficiency, scalability, and low-cost learning environments that provide collaboration, exploration, and accessible content updates. At the same time, online teaching faces adaptation difficulties, the need for self-discipline, additional training for teachers, technical issues, and more screen time. Although traditional teaching in the context of ICT (information and communication technology) still dominates science education, education systems are changing the balance between traditional and innovative pedagogical orientations [
18].
The effectiveness of online teaching and learning has been explored in depth by many researchers. Several researchers used surveys and semi-structured interviews to assess the effectiveness of 90% of online instruction. The study involved 15 university courses and 88 students who completed questionnaires and conducted three in-depth interviews [
19]. The results showed that students had a positive learning experience in their online classes. However, this study also pointed to poor student engagement in online learning. Another study developed an online module with a video instructional component and used continuous assessments and online surveys to conduct formative and summative assessments of students and instructors [
20]. These assessments showed that students and instructors were pleased with the implementation of the modules.
The evidence base on the effectiveness of online instruction is growing. Researchers conducted a literature review to determine online education’s effectiveness, potential, and challenges. Results showed that online education enhanced diversity and equity in learning and that online and campus students had similar performance and satisfaction [
21]. Using data from two large-scale examinations in representative primary and secondary schools in China before and after COVID-19, a study analyzed face-to-face instruction before the epidemic and online instruction after the epidemic [
22]. The results showed that 106 students in primary and secondary schools before the epidemic had significantly better academic performance than after the epidemic. The negative impact of online instruction on rural areas exceeded that of urban areas; the original gap between urban and rural students widened after online instruction. The effectiveness of online teaching needs to be further studied, and further improvements in technology and teachers are needed.
2.2. Teachers’ Views on Online Teaching
Understanding teacher and student perceptions of online instruction have been an important and popular research topic [
23], which is necessary to improve the effectiveness of online instruction. A cross-sectional survey of students and teachers was conducted to assess the quality, attendance, equivalency, and perceptions of the sustainability of online instructional programs [
24]. One hundred forty-six students and 26 faculty members completed the survey. 89% of students felt that the online instruction offered during the epidemic was an appropriate teaching method. Less than half of the learners and teachers felt they received the same level and quality of training as in the regular curriculum. Another study showed that COVID-19 isolation had varying degrees of impact on the academic performance of most participants [
25]. Most participants did not believe online courses could replace physical methods, and only 10.1% believed online courses could replace face-to-face courses. Ease of use positively influenced teachers’ attitudes toward online teaching [
26]. The Statement on Online Teaching and Learning mentions that online teaching and learning should not be divorced from traditional teaching methods but should integrate digital tools into teaching methods to facilitate the development of student learning with richer teaching resources [
27]. Given that teachers’ attitudes are the main predictors of the ICT integration process [
28], teachers’ perceptions of online teaching and learning need further study.
Online teaching has been widely popularized in recent years. As the leader of online teaching, teachers’ perception of online teaching has also attracted the attention of many researchers. A researcher surveying teachers’ experiences of online teaching from a constructivist perspective and interviewing 19 teachers showed that online teaching facilitated and hindered teachers’ experiences of teaching flexibility, academic freedom, etc. [
29]. For teachers, transitioning from traditional to online education can be mentally taxing and stressful, coupled with low satisfaction with online teaching, leading to teacher burnout [
27]. Some teachers were confident that they could perform well and were well-prepared for tasks related to online teaching [
30]. Others felt that their online teaching experience was essential to their development as teachers, helping them develop different perspectives on learning [
31]. An online survey of 107 teachers in 25 US states found that the main challenges teachers faced during the pandemic included low student engagement, lack of parental support, inability to interact face-to-face with students, inability to balance work and life, and inability to learn new technologies [
32]. Teachers’ experience, self-efficacy, and technological competence slightly improved their perception of online teaching, but not enough to change their mindset [
33].
Research findings have identified mathematics teachers’ attitudes, perceptions, gender, and experience as factors influencing their use of ICT and that digital self-efficacy and perceived support from school can increase teachers’ motivation to increase ICT use in the classroom [
34]. One study found gaps in teachers’ TPACK frameworks and self-efficacy, which influenced their curriculum development, pedagogy, and assessment practices. However, online teaching and assessment practices during the COVID-19 epidemic need further investigation [
35]. A theoretical study based on post-positivism explored the characteristics of 16 teachers’ attitudes toward online education: (1) their efforts to express topics with personal meaning and (2) their efforts to assume various social roles [
36]. The extent to which these efforts were facilitated determined teachers’ attitudes toward online education. Other researchers investigated in-service teachers’ understanding of classroom teaching and learning [
37]. Data sources for this study included teacher interviews, classroom observations, and analysis of documents such as teacher profiles, course lesson plans, and syllabi from the College of Education during in-service teacher training. The results indicated that in-service teachers’ lack of understanding of teaching had a negative impact on teaching. Further research on teacher efficacy, evaluation, well-being, and contribution is critical for education professionals working with and consulting with teachers to promote student success [
38]. Therefore, there is a need to explore teachers’ perceptions of online teaching, which has implications for future development and improvement.
Since the COVID-19 outbreak, many studies have also noted student satisfaction with online teaching, and faculty perceptions of online teaching and have explored factors that facilitate online education. However, few studies have been conducted on online teaching for teachers in different subjects. One study investigated whether factors facilitating teachers’ use of technology differed among Italian teachers across grades and subjects. The results showed that high school natural science teachers were more likely to use technology and technology teaching skills, and social science teachers had lower advanced technology skills. Pre-service teachers had the strongest behavioral intention to use technology [
39]. Still, the study’s sample included a few teachers from lower high schools and had not considered the variable of teachers’ online teaching experience before participating in the survey. Some studies discuss teachers’ perceptions of online teaching only for a particular discipline. For example, a survey used a questionnaire to understand the use of ICT and attitudes toward ICT among Turkish high school EFL teachers. One of the results was that English teachers had positive attitudes toward using ICT for education. They believed computers were more beneficial and better suited to their curricular goals than traditional teaching methods. However, insufficient class time and training opportunities are the main obstacles in the ICT integration process [
28]. Important factors influencing language teachers’ motivation and decisions to adopt online teaching in the future have been identified [
40]. However, the results of these studies do not reflect specific disciplinary characteristics. Teachers, influenced by their disciplinary traditions [
41], may have different perceptions of online teaching, and online teaching may contribute differently in different disciplines. Understanding online teaching and learning perceptions among teachers in different disciplines are critical to ensuring quality teaching and learning.
This short literature review suggests that research on teachers’ attitudes toward online teaching can effectively support the improvement and development of online education. Exploring teachers’ perceptions of online teaching from the perspectives of different disciplines can contribute to the personalized and effective development of online education. This hypothesis provides a basis for exploring teachers’ perceptions of online teaching in different disciplines in a post-epidemic context.