Factors That Influence the Life Satisfaction of Afghan Refugees Living in Eastern Turkey: The Role of Their Migration Causes

Abstract

In this study, the impact of the reasons for leaving their country (such as social, economic, and political) of Afghan asylum seekers who illegally entered Turkey from the eastern border on their life satisfaction in the country of destination was analyzed. The sample comprised 500 individuals (54.8% women; 42.4% < 30 age) who came as refugees from Turkey’s eastern border. Three-stages of analysis were carried out in the study: the Mantel–Haenszel test, ordered logit, and CART (Classification and Regression Trees) decision tree. The main findings obtained from these analyses show that individuals leaving their country for economic reasons and because of war/terrorism are happier, while those leaving their country because of religious and cultural pressures are unhappier. According to the results of the CART analysis, the most frequently repeated variables are economic and life satisfaction of individuals who are satisfied with their household income and save money is at its highest level. In the analysis it is also seen that the life satisfaction level of individuals who are not satisfied with their household income, leave their country for reasons other than economic reasons, and make a living on debt is very low. This study also focuses on the relationship between happiness and sustainable development (SD). It has associated the reasons for migrants leaving their countries with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), highlighting the significance of happiness studies in achieving the SDGs.

1. Introduction

Since ancient times, people have migrated for different motivations. The movement of individuals should not be viewed merely as a matter of relocation. This movement significantly changes societies’ demographic, sociological, cultural, and economic structures over time. Migration is a significant issue today, and immigrant countries are trying to manage this process and its consequences as best they can. The United Nations 2030 SDGs provide a roadmap to address a wide range of global challenges, including migration-related areas, to create a more equitable, happy, and environmentally sustainable global community [1]. The SDGs serve as guidelines for raising prosperity in countries and creating happier societies. Countries that recognize the severe impact of migration on individual well-being as well as on the development of societies are developing policies based on the SDGs to enhance prosperity worldwide, promote qualified education, and build a sustainable future that is just and without inequalities. Therefore, understanding the global impact of migration is essential to addressing the SDGs [2]. One of the fundamental distinctions in the migration literature is the voluntary–involuntary migration distinction. This study focuses on involuntary (forced) migration, which refers to population movements where individuals leave their countries due to reasons beyond their control (such as war, danger of death, hunger, and climate change).

Migration studies span various academic disciplines such as sociology, economics, history, and geography. Within these disciplines, different methods and theories are used to explain migration patterns [3]. Neoclassical economics, represented by the micro theory, assumes that rational individuals conduct precise cost-benefit analyses when making migration decisions, often neglecting the psychological, socio-economic, socio-political, and cultural factors they encounter before, during, and after migration [4]. The costs neglected by neoclassical economics have found their place in academic research. The focus of these studies is mainly on which countries migrants are happier in, whether the wealth level of the destination country affects their happiness, whether an increase in absolute income after migration alone leads to an increase in happiness (The terms “happiness” and “life satisfaction” are often used interchangeably in studies: In this study, the concepts of life satisfaction and happiness are used interchangeably), and the issues of discrimination and exclusion faced after migration [5,6,7].

Findings from previous studies (for example, [8]) reveal that migrants do not always make rational decisions when choosing to migrate, and their cost-benefit calculations are not always accurate. The literature explains the variables influencing migrants’ happiness in the destination country through concepts like relative income, adaptation theory, and social comparison theory. For example, achieving the desired income level in the destination country may not lead to happiness if the individual holds a lower socio-economic status compared to their home country or is not employed in a job commensurate with their education [9].

As a contribution to the literature, this study shows that the reasons for leaving the origin country impact happiness in the destination country. Its significance is that it delves into the relatively understudied intersection of refugee experiences within the broader migration and happiness literature. In doing so, our study contributes significantly by shedding light on the distinctive factors influencing the life satisfaction of Afghan refugees who undertook illegal migration, offering valuable insights into potential variations when compared to other refugee groups or legal immigrant populations.

Furthermore, the happiness and integration levels of immigrants in host countries are not only crucial for their sustainable well-being but also for the happiness of the native populations. In this regard, this study has importance due to its close alignment with the 2030 SDGs. These goals, initiated under the banner of “Leaving No One Behind”, outline 17 key objectives aimed at creating a fairer and more sustainable world for migrants [10].

Therefore, in a time when policies are being formulated to enhance the sustainable happiness of both local populations and marginalized groups like migrants, studies focused on this particular group can serve as valuable reference points for future research.

Afghanistan, which has been struggling with internal and external instability for many years due to its geographical position, political, demographic, and economic reasons, has been one of the major source countries in the world for more than forty years. The vast majority of Afghan individuals leaving their country (except those who left legally) continue the migration process through the Iran–Turkey border by paying significant amounts of money to illegal organizations in recent years. These individuals come to Turkey on foot and encounter many problems, such as hunger, cold, and exposure to crime, in this process. While some of the arriving refugees turn their direction to Western countries via the Doğubayazıt–Ağrı–Erzurum line, some of them stay in Turkey and spread to various provinces. Some refugees who have fled their country due to reasons such as war and the danger of death and cannot return apply for international protection and continue to live in the country over the long term if their application is accepted.

The main purpose of this study is to investigate how the reasons for leaving the origin country (economic, political, educational, religious, and cultural pressures, etc.) affect the happiness in the destination country for Afghan refugees who entered Turkey illegally over the Iranian border and obtained the right to stay legally with an International Protection Application. In addition, the study aims to contribute to the life satisfaction literature by presenting evidence from refugees in Turkey.

The research is of importance as it addresses the under-explored topic of refugees in the context of migration and happiness literature. The main contribution of our study is to understand how the variables affecting the life satisfaction of Afghan refugees differ from other refugee groups or legal immigrant groups.

Within this context, Afghan refugees were selected as the sample because it is one country with the highest emigration in the world, and they are densely located on Turkey’s eastern border. The data obtained from 500 immigrants asking their socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics (such as household income and gender), status and the reasons for leaving their country. The structure of the paper is as follows: In Section 2, we review the existing literature on migration happiness. Section 3 introduces the data and methods used in this study. Section 4 analyzes the reasons for refugees leaving their country, the relationship between socio-demographic and economic variables, and life satisfaction. Section 5 summarizes the study and offers policy recommendations to achieve these goals through the relationship between the SDGs and the causes of migration.

2. Literature Review

According to the United Nations, the number of international migrants has exceeded 272 million [11], and the World Migration Report [12] states that if this continues, this number will exceed 400 million in 2050. Migration is not merely relocation; it carries significant long-term social, economic, and cultural consequences that impact migrants and their destination and origin countries.

Happiness researchers focus on examining how host countries impact immigrants’ well-being, whether moving to wealthier nations affects happiness, and whether increased income alone leads to overall well-being [13].

Neoclassical economics posits that the migration decision of an individual is based on cost–profit analysis and utility maximization [14,15]. In theory, rational individuals can calculate costs and benefits precisely, but in reality, predicting all material and non-material costs during and after migration is not feasible.

After migration, individuals may encounter challenges like cultural differences, language barriers, job transitions, homesickness, and reduced social support [13,16], which can reduce life satisfaction. Although economic condition play an important roles in immigrant life satisfaction [17], other factors like the destination country’s political regime, social and economic comparisons, adaptation, discrimination, and exclusion also affect immigrant life satisfaction [18,19]. While some studies in the literature found the effect of migration on immigrants’ life satisfaction to be positive [20], others found that migration reduces life satisfaction [21]. In an experimental study, some of the participants who wanted to move from Tonga to New Zealand were permitted to migrate by lottery, while others were not. In this experiment, it was observed that immigrants became unhappier over time, even though their income almost tripled that of non-migrants. It was also found that Tongan immigrants experienced a decrease in their happiness even though their mental health increased by about three points on a twenty-point scale [22].

In the neoclassical theory of migration, individuals can increase their objective well-being through income. However, some studies on happiness show the opposite [23,24]. This contradictory relationship between income and happiness—that more income does not necessarily result in more happiness, but individuals in affluent countries tend to be happier than those in low-income nations—has prompted researchers to explore the underlying mechanisms. Easterlin [25] pinpointed three crucial psychological factors in unraveling this paradox: social comparison, adaptation, and aspirations. Repetitive and continuous stimuli create a diminishing effect over time, providing satisfaction based on how much our income level fulfills our goals and desires. Moreover, people make sense of their income not according to their absolute income, but according to the income of other people.

In light of the findings from some of these studies, “relative” income is more important than “absolute” income for individuals [26]. At this point, what should be emphasized is who is the reference group that creates the relative income perception of the individual. Social and economic comparison plays a significant role in shaping individuals’ happiness and well-being. Studies show that an individual can be happier when compared to the people in the origin country and unhappier when compared to the people of the destination country [5,27]. Easterlin [25] states that an individual’s happiness increases when her/his own income increases while the income level of her/his social circle remains constant (and vice versa). Because, according to Easterlin [25], comparing oneself with subgroups makes the individual happy. Also, studies show that, even if the absolute income of the immigrants increases in the destination country, their life satisfaction is lower when compared to the people of that country. For example, the study of Gokdemir and Dumludag [7] on Moroccan and Turkish immigrants living in the Netherlands showed that while Turkish immigrants have higher incomes and lower unemployment rates than their Moroccan counterparts, they have lower life satisfaction—the difference caused by the relative importance of income to Turkish immigrants. Moreover, the study revealed that Turkish immigrants who compared themselves with Dutch people reduced their life satisfaction.

Immigrant adaptation, including acquiring new skills and learning a new language, significantly affects their well-being. Researches has identified factors contributing to successful adaptation and subsequent happiness [28]. Individual and macro-level factors such as education, work experience, language skills, and age at migration influence immigrants’ adaptation and subsequent happiness levels [29]. Immigrants’ aspirations for higher income, safety, and better education significantly affect their happiness in the countries they go to [28,30]. Furthermore, researchers have also conducted studies on the happiness gap between immigrants and the natives in the host country, as well as the level of development in both the host and destination countries [31,32]. Some studies indicate that those who migrate to less developed countries or between such countries tend to experience lower satisfaction levels, while those who migrate to developed countries or between them report higher satisfaction levels [27,33]. For example, the study of Bartram [5] shows that individuals who move to the United States from rich countries such as Europe and Canada are happier than those who come from poor regions such as Asia and Africa.

In many studies, a distinction is rarely made between voluntary and involuntary migration, with limited research focusing on the life satisfaction of involuntary migrants [34]. Studying this distinction is crucial because the factors influencing happiness may vary for immigrants who relocate involuntarily. Hwang and colleagues [35] researched the social, economic, mental, and physical well-being of 1.3 million people displaced by China’s “Three Gorges Dam” project. Their findings indicate that involuntary migration adversely affected their well-being, despite the relative improvement in housing quality for the immigrants. A study by Hagstrom and colleagues [36], involving 600 refugees from 30 different countries in New York, found that having a substantial number of friends from their ethnic group and possessing strong language skills was associated with increased happiness. Another study investigated the impact of young Tibetan refugees’ life satisfaction, life orientation, and environment on their happiness in India [30]. In the literature, there are also studies focusing on issues such as employment that facilitates adaptation and positively affects life satisfaction [37], language proficiency [38,39], job/financial satisfaction [40], subjective health status [41], acculturation [31], and education [42].

In this context, happiness is also closely tied to the SDGs and various disciplines centered around life satisfaction. Taking a broader view of happiness can help us comprehend its strong connection to the SDGs and establish a framework for understanding the link between migration and happiness in a broader context [43]. The SDGs aim to protect human rights and leave a better world for future generations, and one of these goals includes increasing life satisfaction and well-being [44]. The World Happiness Report (WHR) [45] defines SD as an approach that combines human well-being, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability. According to the report, sustainable happiness can be achieved by adopting approaches and technologies that reduce human-induced environmental harm, while also respecting human rights [43].

Happiness is a personal experience, making the impact of SDGs on individuals’ life experiences highly important. In this context, various studies on happiness in areas such as fair income distribution, quality of life, gender inequality, discrimination, and access to basic services are crucial in demonstrating the effectiveness of policies aimed at these goals in society. The strength of happiness studies lies in measuring how policies within the framework of the SDGs affect individual experiences through surveys conducted on a broad scale. Thus, progress in SD can be monitored, existing deficiencies can be identified, and specific policies to address these deficiencies can be guided. A study investigating the relationship between SDGs and life satisfaction has found that dimensions of SD have an impact on sustainable happiness, well-being, and life satisfaction [43]. Similarly, Jahanshahi and others [44] as well as Cloutier and Pfeiffer [46] argue that happiness and well-being contribute to the success of SD.

As indicated earlier, the literature reveals that the life satisfaction of immigrants, including refugees, is influenced by various factors such as adaptation, having relatives in the host country, gender, and income. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between these variables and happiness, this study investigates both the motivations behind refugees leaving their home countries and the impact of socio-demographic and economic conditions on their happiness in their destination countries.

3. Data and Model

The application made by individuals who have fled their country due to reasons such as war and the danger of death and cannot return to their country to stay in Turkey as an asylum seeker is called an International Protection Application. The authorities evaluate the circumstances of the applicants, and it is decided whether they must return to their countries or not. During the application evaluation, applicants are allowed to reside in Turkey and benefit from some basic rights and services. Although the current legal regulations in Turkey do not allow refugees to stay in the country in the long term, if the asylum seeker cannot find another country to settle in, they can continue to live in the country with international protection status. In this way, the way for refugees to stay in the country for many years is cleared [47].

This study aims to examine the factors affecting the life satisfaction of Afghan immigrants (asylum seekers) who entered Turkey illegally through its eastern border (Afghanistan–Iran–Dogubayazıt–Agri route) in 2018 and then obtained the right to stay in the country legally with an International Protection Application.

The minimum sample size is 384 according to the 5% margin of error and 5% level of significance [48]. However, we decided to include 500 participants in the survey to obtain more extensive and reliable results. The data collection process was carried out using the face-to-face survey method and applied to a total of 500 individuals. Of these participants, 274 were female and 226 were male, selected from individuals aged 18 and older.

The detection and representation of immigrants in the study are of great significance in terms of the validity and reliability of the study. Therefore, data collection was conducted meticulously. Representation of the study was ensured via the permissions and addresses collected from the Presidency of Migration Management, which produced stronger and more valid results (This study has been conducted with permissions obtained from the Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Turkey, the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Interior Presidency of Migration, and the Gendarmerie General Command). Questionnaires used in the study were prepared in Turkish and Persian. Questionnaires were conducted with participants whose native languages were Persian and Turkish.

Three-stage analysis was carried out in the study. In the first stage, the relationships between the socioeconomic/demographic variables of individuals, the reasons for leaving their country, and their satisfaction levels were obtained through the Mantel–Haenszel test. The Mantel–Haenszel test is a statistical test that enables the assessment of the relationship between two categorical variables by testing the impact of a third variable [49]. This way, the correlation between the categorical variables can be assessed more reliably. In the second stage, the significant variables obtained with the Mantel–Haenszel test were examined with logistic regression analysis applied to model the post-migration satisfaction levels of the individuals. An ordered logit model is a statistical model used to examine ordered categorical data. This model is used to understand the relationship between ordered categories and to determine how the order is dependent upon the variables. In the last stage, the significant variables obtained in the logistic regression model were remodeled using CART decision tree methods. Decision trees are categorization and regression tree algorithms that use both categorical and constant variables to estimate the results of new observations based on a series of decisions and the potential results of these decisions [50]. In its most basic form, the formula of the hypothesis used for life satisfaction in the cross-section model is:

$$S_i={\alpha }_0+X_i{\beta }_i+Z_i{\theta }_i+M_i{\gamma }_i+{\epsilon }_i$$

$S_i$ represents the dependent variable, which is life satisfaction. $X_i$ represents socio-demographic factors included in the independent variables. $Z_i$ represents the group of socio-economic variables included in the independent variables, and finally $M_i$ represents the reasons for leaving their country.

3.1. Procedure

Permissions were obtained from the authorities before approaching the participants. All participants were informed about the purpose of the study, whether participation was voluntary, possible risks, anonymity, and confidentiality of responses. Informed consent was given to all participants before starting the study. Upon verbal informed consent, they were allowed to proceed. The management of the questionnaire and the data collection process were carried out within the scope of the project. Participants were given the option to fill out the Persian or Turkish version of the questionnaire. Participants were not compensated for volunteering. The current study received the approval of the University Institutional Review Board and Ethical Committee in treating participants ethically, which included briefing, consent, and debriefing.

3.2. Descriptive Statistics

The dependent variable for this study was self-reported life satisfaction. In this study, similar to the World Values Survey, the evaluation of happiness was based on the self-reported answer to a single question: “All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?” Respondents were asked to indicate a score on an ordinal scale ranging from 0 (completely dissatisfied) to 10 (completely satisfied). Further, previous studies have found that the use of self-reported measures of life satisfaction shows both adequate reliability and validity [51].

The explanatory variables shown in

Table 1. Table of independent variables.

Socio-Demographic/Economic	Range
Life satisfaction	0–10
Gender	0–1
Age (Category)	0–9
Language proficiency	0–1
Duration of stay (Category)	0–9
Marital status	0–1
Having relatives in the destination country	0–1
Educational status	0–6
Employment status	0–1
Monthly household income (Category)	0–3
Economic satisfaction	0–5
Financial status	0–6
Household income satisfaction	0–5
Monthly personal income (Category)	0–3
Reasons of Immigration
I left for economic reasons (poverty, unemployment)	0–5
I left for political reasons (political orientation and being an opponent)	0–5
I left because of religious and cultural pressures	0–5
I left because of the war in my country	0–5
I left to avoid going to prison in my country	0–5
I left because of being tortured and ill-treated or because of terror/fear of being killed	0–5
I left because of oppression against minorities	0–5
I left because I was forced into marriage	0–5
I left because of the lack of adequate educational opportunities	0–5
I left because of my health problems and poor health care	0–5

were grouped into three categories as follows:

• Socio-demographic variables: gender, age, language proficiency, duration of stay, marital status, having relatives in the destination country, education, employment status;
• Socio-economic variables: monthly personal income (What is your monthly personal total income, after tax and compulsory deductions, from all sources?), monthly household income (What is your monthly household’s total income, after tax and compulsory deductions, from all sources?), economic satisfaction (Are you happy with your economic condition?), household income satisfaction. In order to learn about the financial situation of individuals, the question was asked: “Which of the listed statements best describes your situation regarding your income/expense?” (see

  Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the variables.

  	Mean	S.D.		Mean	S.D.
  Life Satisfaction	4.05	2.02	Socio-Economic
  Socio-Demographic			Household income
  Gender			0–200 $	4.12	2.54
  Female	4.47	2.33	201–400 $	4.36	2.09
  Male	4.08	2.01	401–800 $	4.80	1.61
  Age			Economic status
  18–31	3.98	2.06	Very bad	3.04	2.19
  32–45	3.93	2.01	Bad	4.36	1.84
  46–59	4.47	1.90	Neither bad nor good	5.27	2.05
  60 years and older	5.00	1.59	Good	5.18	0.85
  Having relatives in the destination country			Financial status
  Yes	4.85	2.32	I got into debt	2.74	1.99
  No	3.93	2.05	Spending savings	3.60	2.50
  Marital status			Not spending savings	3.00	0.01
  Single	3.64	1.81	No savings	5.45	1.97
  Married	4.48	2.27	Saved money	4.20	0.83
  Employment status			Financial aid	4.30	1.02
  Yes	4.00	2.23	Household income satisfaction
  No	4.47	2.18	Very dissatisfied	3.38	2.22
  Reasons for Immigration			Dissatisfied	3.83	2.15
  Leaving for economic reasons			Satisfied	4.48	2.22
  Strongly disagree	3.48	2.26	Very satisfied	4.30	2.21
  Disagree	3.60	2.31	Leaving for religious and cultural pressures
  Neutral	6.13	1.87	Strongly disagree	4.67	2.17
  Agree	4.20	2.02	Disagree	4.69	2.18
  Strongly Agree	4.23	2.08	Neutral	3.53	1.45
  Leaving for health problems and poor health care			Agree	3.17	2.10
  Strongly Disagree	3.24	2.04	Strongly agree	3.20	2.14
  Disagree	3.36	2.01	Leaving for fear of being killed/being tortured and mistreated
  Neutral	5.09	1.44	Strongly Disagree	3.84	2.20
  Agree	4.90	2.22	Disagree	4.04	2.13
  Strongly agree	4.94	2.21	Neutral	3.40	1.57
  Lack of adequate educational opportunities			Agree	4.43	2.18
  Strongly disagree	3.42	2.23	Strongly agree	4.45	2.29
  Disagree	3.57	2.17	Leaving because of war/terror in my country
  Neutral	5.09	2.08	Strongly disagree	2.28	1.60
  Agree	4.90	2.01	Disagree	3.01	1.67
  Strongly agree	4.96	1.98	Agree	4.39	2.20
  			Strongly agree	4.40	2.21

  for the categories of the questions);
• Reasons for immigration: participants were asked “What are the reasons why you left your origin country?” The options are as follows: I left my country for economic reasons (poverty, unemployment, etc.); I left my country for political reasons (political orientation and being an opponent of the regime, etc); I left my country for religious and cultural pressures (having a different religion, belief, or religious order); I left my country because of the war in my country; I left my country to avoid going to prison in my country; I left my country because of being tortured and ill-treated or because of terror/fear of being killed; I left my country because of oppression against minorities; I left my country because I was forced into marriage; I left my country because of the lack of adequate education opportunities; I left my country because of my health problems and poor health care.

Descriptive statistics of all variables that were significant in the Mantel–Haenszel test are shown in Table 2. The average happiness of Afghan refugees who received a residence permit with an asylum application is 4.05. In the WHR of 2018, the happiness level of Afghans between 2015 and 2017 was reported to be 4.06 [52].

Descriptive statistical results are presented in Table 2. The results show that female refugees are happier than males, with an average of 4.47. Additionally, there is a positive correlation between age and happiness, with individuals reporting greater happiness as they grow older. Furthermore, individuals with relatives in Turkey are happier than those who do not have relatives. The study also reveals that marital status plays a role in refugees’ happiness levels, with married refugees reporting greater happiness than their single counterparts, with an average score of 4.48. Moreover, a significant positive relationship emerges between household income, an economic variable, and happiness. As household income increases and financial status improves, individuals’ happiness tends to rise. Also, individuals who received financial aid reported higher levels of happiness compared to individuals who borrowed and spent their savings.

In this study, those who said “I left my country for economic reasons” have higher life satisfaction. Individuals who say “I left because of religious and cultural pressures” have lower life satisfaction. The life satisfaction of individuals who leave their country due to war and terrorism is higher than those who do not leave for these reasons. It is observed that individuals who left their country due to the fear of being killed/tortured, lack of adequate education opportunities, and poor health care are happier.

4. Findings

In this section, the reasons for individuals to leave their country and the impact of social and economic variables on their life satisfaction in the destination country are examined. The analysis consists of three parts. In the first part, the relationship between gender, age, language proficiency, duration of stay, having relatives in the destination country, marital status, education, employment status, monthly personal income, monthly household income, economic satisfaction, financial status, household income satisfaction, and variables of reasons for leaving their country, and life satisfaction was obtained by the Mantel–Haenszel test. In the second analysis, the variables associated with life satisfaction (gender, having relatives, marital status, household income, economic satisfaction, financial status, household income satisfaction, leaving for economic reasons, leaving because of religious and cultural pressures, leaving because of war/terror in the origin country, leaving because of fear of being killed/being tortured and ill-treated, leaving due to lack of adequate educational opportunities and leaving for health problems and poor health care) as a result of the Mantel–Haenszel test were analyzed with the ordered logit. In the third stage, the variables found to be significant with the ordered logit were shown in the decision tree obtained with the CART algorithm. CART is a machine learning method that aids categorization and regression analyses by categorizing the data and forming decision trees. The Cronbach’s alpha value in the model is 0.85, indicating that the survey data can be used reliably for statistical analysis.

Table 3. Relationship between explanatory variables and life satisfaction (Mantel–Haenszel test).

Variable	p
Gender	0.046
Age	0.074
Language proficiency (Turkish)	0.321
Duration of stay (year)	0.328
Having relatives in the destination country	<0.001
Marital status	<0.001
Educational status	0.248
Employment status	0.464
Monthly personal income	0.446
Monthly household income	0.001
Economic satisfaction	<0.001
Financial status	<0.001
Household income satisfaction	<0.001
Leaving for economic reasons	0.002
Leaving because of political orientation and the pressure against opponents	0.093
Leaving because of religious and cultural pressures	<0.001
Leaving because of war/terror in the origin country	<0.001
Leaving because of fear of being killed/being tortured and ill-treated	0.016
Leaving for fear of going to prison	0.052
Leaving because of the oppression of minorities	0.073
Leaving because of being forced into marriage	0.355
Leaving due to lack of adequate educational opportunities	<0.001
Leaving for health problems and poor health care	<0.001

The significance level is in bold when p < 0.05, p < 0.01, or p < 0.001.

shows the relationship between the post-migration life satisfaction levels of the individuals included in the research, and their demographic information, and the reasons for leaving their country. According to the data obtained, there is no statistically significant relationship between the status of individuals leaving their country due to gender, age, education, employment status, language proficiency, duration of stay, monthly personal income, political orientation and pressure against opponents, leaving their country in order not to go to prison, leaving due to oppression against minorities, and leaving because of being forced to marry, and their satisfaction levels (p > 0.05). Considering the results, there is a statistically significant relationship between gender, presence of relatives living in Turkey, marital status, household income level, economic conditions, income–expenditure level, satisfaction with the financial status of the household, leaving their country because of the fear of being killed, because of economic reasons, because of religious and cultural pressures, because of war and terrorism, because of a lack of adequate educational opportunities, because of health problems and poor health care, and their satisfaction levels (p < 0.05).

Table 4. Ordinal regression results.

Variable	Group	OR	Wald	p
Gender	Female	0.191	1.071	0.301
	Male	0 a	-	-
Having relatives in the destination country	Yes	0.516	7.116	0.008
	No	0 a	-	-
Marital status	Single	−0.316	2.295	0.130
	Married	0 a	-	-
Household Income	0–200 $	−0.200	0.272	0.602
	201–400 $	0.099	0.076	0.783
	401+	0 a	-	-
Economic status	Very bad	0.001	0.000	0.997
	Bad	−0.495	1.506	0.220
	Neither bad nor good	0.001	0.000	0.998
	Good	0 a	-	-
Financial status	I got into debt	−1.210	15.540	0.000
	Spend savings	1.612	6.666	0.010
	Do not spend savings	−1.470	2.297	0.130
	Saved money	1.732	8.702	0.003
	No savings	1.217	28.596	0.000
	Living with financial aid	0 a	-	-
Household income satisfaction	Very dissatisfied	−1.020	4.879	0.027
	Dissatisfied	−0.953	4.015	0.045
	Satisfied	−0.500	1.237	0.266
	Very satisfied	0 a	-	-
Leaving for economic reasons	Strongly disagree	−1.228	15.608	0.000
	Disagree	−1.137	11.865	0.001
	Neutral	0.282	0.865	0.352
	Agree	0.041	0.030	0.862
	Strongly agree	0 a	-	-
Leaving for religious and cultural pressures	Strongly disagree	0.619	3.253	0.071
	Disagree	0.629	2.886	0.089
	Neutral	−0.465	0.740	0.390
	Agree	−0.148	0.106	0.744
	Strongly agree	0 a	-	-
Leaving for war/terror in the origin country	Strongly disagree	−1.400	7.439	0.006
	Disagree	−1.448	7.752	0.005
	Agree	0.009	0.002	0.965
	Strongly agree	0 a	-	-
Leaving for fear of being killed/being tortured and ill-treated	Strongly disagree	−0.449	1.837	0.175
	Disagree	−0.324	0.886	0.352
	Neutral	−0.461	0.715	0.398
	Agree	0.014	0.004	0.948
	Strongly agree	0 a	-	-
Leaving for lack of adequate educational opportunities	Strongly disagree	−0.900	8.808	0.003
	Disagree	−0.676	4.140	0.042
	Neutral	0.334	0.886	0.352
	Agree	0.065	0.043	0.836
	Strongly agree	0 a	-	-
Leaving for health problems and poor health care	Strongly disagree	0.506	2.590	0.108
	Disagree	0.307	0.744	0.388
	Neutral	−0.224	0.572	0.449
	Agree	0.032	0.010	0.920
	Strongly agree	0 a	-	-

R² = 0.416 (Cox and Snell), R² = 0.425 (Nagelkerke). The significance level is in bold when p < 0.05, p < 0.01, or p < 0.001. a = “a” represents the reference group.

shows the prediction results of the ordinal logistic regression model carried out to model the satisfaction levels of individuals. Significant variables obtained with the Mantel–Haenszel test were tested in the logistic regression model. Odds ratios (OR), Wald statistics, and significance values are given for each independent variable in the models. The logarithm of the variables used in the analysis has been taken.

The R² (Cox and Snell and Nagelkerke) values obtained according to the results are 0.416 and 0.425, respectively. The R² values obtained are above 0.40. The model is statistically significant according to the likelihood ratio test (LR) result (${\chi }^2$ = 246.362, p < 0.05). According to the results of the parallel curves test, all the slope coefficients in the model are equally distributed among the groups (${\chi }^2$ = 259.315, p = 1.000). According to the logistic regression model, the variables of having a relative in Turkey, financial status, household income satisfaction, leaving their country for economic, religious, cultural, war/terrorism, and lack of adequate educational opportunities have a statistically significant effect on the model (p < 0.05).

When we look at the ordinal regression results, with all other predictors constant, having a relative in Turkey increases the log odds ratio of life satisfaction by 0.516 units. As expected, household income satisfaction positively affects life satisfaction. With other predictors constant, the life satisfaction log odds ratio of individuals who are dissatisfied with their household income (very dissatisfied, dissatisfied) is reduced by −1.020 and 0.953 units, respectively. These results indicate that life satisfaction decreases when satisfaction with the household income is low.

Holding all the other predictors constant, the log odds ratio of the life satisfaction of people with debt is reduced by −1.210 units. With all the other predictors constant, log odds ratios of people who spend their savings, who can save money, and those who cannot save money are increased by 1.612, 1.732, and 1.217 units, respectively. These results point to the fact that financial status has a significant impact on life satisfaction in general. This shows that with increased economic assurances, life satisfaction also tends to increase, and that financial comfort contributes to general happiness.

Holding all other predictors constant, when asked about the reason to leave their country, refugees who responded “I did not leave my country of origin due to economic reasons” have life satisfaction levels with log odds ratios (very dissatisfied, dissatisfied) reduced by −1.228 and −1.137, respectively.

With all other predictors constant, log odds ratios (very dissatisfied, dissatisfied) of the life satisfaction of people who did not leave their country of origin due to religious and cultural oppression are increased by 0.619 and 0.629, respectively. It seems that people who leave their country due to religious reasons are more unhappy.

With all other predictors constant, log odds ratios of people who did not leave their origin country due to war or terrorism (very dissatisfied, dissatisfied) are reduced by −1.400 and −1.448 units, respectively.

All other predictors being constant, log odds ratios (very dissatisfied, dissatisfied) of the life satisfaction of people who did not leave their origin country due to a lack of equality of education opportunities are reduced by −0.900 and −0.676 units, respectively. This analysis shows that people who leave their origin country due to inadequacy of education opportunities are happier compared to those who did not leave their origin country for this reason.

In the third stage of the study, immigrants’ life satisfaction was predicted using the data mining technique known as decision tree analysis [53]. The decision tree model is based on binary subdivisions using regression and classification trees. The significant variables obtained in the ordered logit analysis have been included in the CART analysis. These variables are having a relative in the destination country, financial status, household income satisfaction, leaving for economic reasons, leaving due to war/terrorism in the origin country, and lack of adequate educational opportunities. Figure 1 depicts the decision tree obtained through the CART algorithm, indicating a correct classification rate of 64% for the model. According to the results of the CART algorithm, four variables, namely satisfaction with household financial conditions, leaving the country for economic reasons, financial status, and the presence of relatives living in Turkey, significantly impact the CART algorithm (p < 0.05). Decision tree analysis is a significant methodology employed for comprehending the relationship between variables and understanding the connection between life satisfaction and the implications of the tree structure. The outcomes of this analysis have effectively contributed to a more detailed and meaningful understanding of the factors influencing immigrants’ life satisfaction.

The results of this study show that economic factors have an effect on the life satisfaction of individuals. According to the results obtained, the majority (27.7%) of those who have been dissatisfied with their household income level after migration, those who left their country for economic reasons, and those who expressed their financial conditions as “I got into debt” evaluated their life satisfaction at 2 points on a 0–10 scale. In addition, according to the results, the majority (30%) of the individuals who have been dissatisfied with their household income level after the migration, those who left their country for economic reasons, and who state their income-expenditure conditions as “I make a living by aid; I have no savings, but I am able to make a living; I do not spend my savings; I am able to live by spending my savings” evaluated their life satisfaction at 3 points.

The majority (28.6%) of those who have been dissatisfied with their household income after migration and left their country not for economic reasons evaluated their life satisfaction at 2 points. The majority (34.1%) of those who have been satisfied with their household income level after the migration and stated that “I live with financial aid; I got into debt; I do not spend my savings” evaluated their life satisfaction at 4 points. According to the results, the majority (41.8%) of those who have been satisfied with their household income level after migration and stated their financial conditions as “no savings; spend savings; saved money” and those who have relatives living in Turkey evaluated their life satisfaction at 5 points. It is seen that individuals who are satisfied with their income level, are able to save money, and have relatives constitute the group with the highest life satisfaction. Again, the majority (47.7%) of those who are satisfied with their household income level and have described their financial situation as ”no savings; spend savings; saved money” and who do not have relatives in Turkey, evaluated their life satisfaction at 5 points. Here, we can say that satisfaction with income level is a variable that maximizes life satisfaction.

5. Discussion

Many studies have been conducted on the life satisfaction of migrants. However, most of these studies do not distinguish between voluntary and involuntary migration. The reasons for individuals who migrated as refugees to leave their countries can be more diverse and may include traumatic factors. This is why it is crucial to work with groups of individuals who left their countries for reasons such as war, religious oppression, or fear of being killed.

This study can contribute to the literature as it is one of the few studies dealing with this group, and is the first study in terms of how the reasons for leaving the country will affect the happiness of these individuals in the country of destination.

This study reveals that the average life satisfaction of Afghan refugees in eastern Turkey is 4.05, which is quite close to the general average in the 2018 WHR (4.06) [52]. However, during the same period, the average life satisfaction in Afghanistan was 3.63, while it was determined as 5.48 for the entire population in Turkey. These findings support the literature’s conclusions that migrants tend to be less happy than the local population but happier than those in their country of origin.

Studies indicate that having acquaintances or relatives in the destination country facilitates the adaptation process for migrants, leading to increased life satisfaction. Additionally, it promotes psychological well-being when combined with social support and reduces stress factors [54,55]. The findings of this study, aligning with prior research, highlight a positive relationship between migrants having relatives in the host country and higher levels of life satisfaction.

Several factors may influence the relationship between age and happiness among immigrants. For example, as immigrants age, they may develop a stronger sense of attachment and belonging to the host country, contributing to increased happiness levels [56]. This study aligns with the literature by observing that happiness increases as age increases.

In addition, while there is limited research on the reasons why female immigrants are happier than male immigrants, general happiness studies have shown that women tend to report higher levels of happiness [57,58]. The greater happiness among married immigrants compared to unmarried ones can be attributed to various factors, including a sense of belonging, increased social interaction, lower levels of depression, and emotional support [59,60]. This study also observes that in terms of gender and marital status female immigrants tend to be happier than male immigrants, and happiness tends to increase among married immigrants compared to those who are unmarried.

Some studies suggest that income does not significantly increase happiness beyond a certain level [59], while other research argues that relative income plays a more significant role. Higher income often leads to greater life satisfaction for those who migrate to developed countries. Income is significant, but expectations, cultural differences, and comparisons also shape this relationship [5]. Consistent with the literature, this study confirms that individuals dissatisfied with their household income have lower levels of happiness, which rise as income increases. Moreover, the CART analysis corroborates these findings by highlighting that individuals dissatisfied with their household incomes and concurrently migrating for economic reasons generally report lower life satisfaction.

The reasons for refugees leaving their country are diverse, and it may negatively affect their happiness levels as they have to cope with factors such as losing their homes, jobs, and cultural ties [30,61].

In general, those who migrate for economic reasons may find more happiness as they meet their higher income expectations in their destination countries [5]. However, different migration reasons can affect happiness in various ways [62]. Despite increasing incomes, refugees may experience unhappiness due to various challenges, such as discrimination [63]. Consistent with the literature, this study has determined that individuals who leave their country for reasons other than economic reasons are more unhappy.

In this study, individuals who left their country due to reasons such as war, terrorism, or fear of being killed and tortured are happier in the destination country. Individuals who escape from war preserve their right to life, which is the most fundamental human right, by avoiding chaos. Therefore, these individuals may have higher thresholds for tolerating the economic, cultural, physical, and psychological difficulties they will encounter in their country of destination. Moreover, the findings of this study indicate that individuals who leave their country for religious and cultural reasons are less happy. The destination country may not meet the life expectations of individuals who migrate due to religious and cultural reasons. For this reason, socio-cultural changes or the possibility of not being able to maintain their previous economic and social status in the destination country can make the individual unhappier [64]. Taking an overarching view of the study, regardless of the reasons for leaving the origin country, it is evident that economic reasons have a significant impact on an individual’s happiness in the destination country.

Life satisfaction is closely linked to the UN’s 2030 SDGs. In order to both achieve the SDG targets and create happier societies, policies should be developed to improve the living conditions of immigrants. In this way, increasing social cohesion and general social welfare may be possible. Happiness research can be an important tool to achieve this goal.

Policies that provide economic opportunities and job prospects in the destination country for migrants, regardless of the reasons for leaving their home countries, can contribute to the well-being and happiness of both the host country and the country of origin, for example through remittances. Therefore, organizations can implement programs to develop vocational skills and provide entrepreneurship support. Practices such as language courses, cultural activities, and mentorship programs can accelerate the social and economic integration of migrants.

Individuals leaving their countries due to war, political factors, religious and cultural pressures, fear of imprisonment, terrorism, threat of violence, or torture can be associated with SDG 16. Also, those leaving due to forced marriages can be linked to SDG 5. Additionally, individuals departing from their country because of a lack of educational opportunities and due to poor healthcare services can be related to SDGs 4 and 5. Through comprehensive happiness studies that identify the priorities of migrants and the local population, measures such as quality healthcare services, quality education, policies to reduce gender inequality, legal protection, and humanitarian aid programs can be implemented, contributing to both SD and happiness.

This study provides data for scientists; however, it has certain limitations. The study has a cross-sectional design, which means that it is not possible to determine the direction of causality between the variables. The study was conducted with a sample of refugees who came from Afghanistan to the east of Turkey. For this reason, it is within the bounds of the possibility that the findings may not be generalizable to all Afghan refugees. Furthermore, the study did not control for other factors that may influence psychological and subjective well-being, such as discrimination. It is important to note this possibility when interpreting our findings. Taking into consideration the limitations stated above, a careful evaluation is necessary to determine the contributions and the value of the findings in the study. It is advised that more extensive and diverse methods should be used to overcome these limitations and guide further research. Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable insights into the relationships between life satisfaction and the reasons for leaving their country, socio-demographic, and socio-economic factors.