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Article

Influence of Recycled Cement Paste Powder on Early-Age Plastic Shrinkage and Cracking of Cement-Based Materials

by
Yuanhuang Wang
1,
Zheng Lu
2,3,
Dianchao Wang
2,4,*,
Qihang Tan
2,
Weiwei Wu
2 and
Liming Zhu
1
1
China Construction Third Engineering Bureau First Engineering Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430000, China
2
Department of Disaster Mitigation for Structures, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
3
State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
4
Department of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(13), 10661; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310661
Submission received: 29 March 2023 / Revised: 25 May 2023 / Accepted: 5 July 2023 / Published: 6 July 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Approaching Carbon Neutrality: Low-Carbon Solutions to Urban Regeneration and Green Economy 2nd Edition)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Cement-based materials, especially those with low water-cement ratios, often experience premature cracking due to plastic shrinkage in the early curing stages. In this study, the development mechanism of early-age plastic shrinkage of cement paste, and the crack shrinkage control effect of recycled cement paste powder on cement paste, was quantitatively investigated using non-contacting two-dimensional digital image technology. The influence of different replacement rates (5%, 10%, 20% and 30%) of recycled cement paste powder on the major principal strain and crack patterns of cement paste was investigated. Furthermore, the mechanism of recycled cement paste powder on the early-age plastic shrinkage of cement-based materials was explored. The results show that the addition of recycled cement paste powder could suppress the early-age plastic shrinkage of cement paste. An appropriate replacement ratio (10%) of recycled cement paste powder shows a 33.3% time delay in crack appearance and a 28.0% reduction in the major principal strain. However, the higher replacement ratio of 30% shows an adverse effect on the major principal strain, with an increase of 35.1%. The core mechanism of the appropriate recycled cement paste powder on plastic shrinkage reduction lies in its porous nature, which allows for water absorption and release and regulates the moisture state inside the pores. This quantitative research of the major principal strain development of the early-age plastic shrinkage of cement paste can facilitate a better understanding of plastic shrinkage reduction in recycled cement paste powder on cement paste.

1. Introduction

Cement-based materials are one of the world’s most widely used construction materials due to their strength, durability, and versatility [1]. However, cement-based materials, especially concrete, can experience plastic shrinkage during the early curing period. Moreover, early-age plastic shrinkage is a common problem in concrete that can lead to cracking and can weaken the overall integrity of the structure [2,3]. The formation of cracks in the surface of the concrete can lead to the ingress of moisture, which can cause further damage to the structure. Additionally, cracks can provide an entry point for corrosive agents, such as chlorides, which can further weaken the concrete and reduce its service life. Furthermore, plastic shrinkage can also affect the concrete’s appearance. The formation of cracks can create an unsightly surface, which can reduce the aesthetic appeal of the structure [4].
The extent of the plastic shrinkage depends on several factors, including the ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and concrete mix design [5,6]. The higher the temperature and wind speed, the lower the relative humidity, and the greater the plastic shrinkage [7,8]. Similarly, the proportion design of concrete can also affect the extent of plastic shrinkage. For example, a mix that contains more water is more susceptible to plastic shrinkage than a mix with less water [9].
Various methods have been developed to mitigate the effects of plastic shrinkage in concrete [10,11,12]. These methods aim to reduce the rate of moisture loss from the concrete surface and, in turn, minimize plastic shrinkage and the formation of cracks. The methods include preventing water evaporation from extensive drying, like controlling the environmental conditions during casting, covering the surface or applying curing compound, or applying correct surface finishing operations. William et al. [13] proposed the Plastic Shrinkage Cracking Severity model to predict the plastic shrinkage degree based on the volume of water that evaporates from the concrete between the placing and the initial setting time of concrete, and concluded that the plastic shrinkage could be reduced through decreasing the evaporation rate under an appropriate environment. Bella et al. [14] concluded that environmental wind potentially reduces the compressive strength by increasing evaporation compared with the ambient temperature, and that plastic shrinkage could be avoided by taking precautions in the curing phase by using adequate and efficient curing procedures, such as plastic sheets or curing compound, coupled with windbreaks or cooling of the concrete ingredients. Moreover, various fibers were tested and applied for shrinkage reduction [15]. Using fibers is a common method for reducing plastic shrinkage in concrete [16]. Fibers can be added to the concrete mix to improve its tensile strength, which can help to prevent cracking due to shrinkage. Fibers can be made from a variety of materials, including steel, plastic, and glass [17,18,19,20]. The use of fibers can also improve the durability of the concrete by reducing the risk of cracking due to external factors, such as temperature changes [21,22,23]. Curing compounds are another common method for reducing plastic shrinkage in concrete. These compounds can be applied to the surface of the concrete to form a membrane that helps to retain moisture. Curing compounds can be made from a variety of materials, including wax [24], resin [25], and polymer emulsions [26]. They can be applied to the surface of the concrete using a sprayer or roller.
Other commonly adopted measures include cement substitution by mineral admixtures, like fly ash, ground granulate blast furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume, internal restraint, shrinkage-reducing admixture, and inert carbon-based nanomaterials, as reinforcing additives. Wang et al. [27] studied the plastic shrinkage behavior in a cement-fly-ash-fiber system, and the results show that adding fly ash influences paste pore structure and plastic shrinkage behavior in different ways; depending on the fibers and their characteristics, the total plastic shrinkage crack area can be reduced by 30% to 40% when 0.1% of the fiber was used. Li and Zhang [25] evaluated the GGBS and fly ash affect on the plastic shrinkage of concrete specimens. The results show that the variety rule of plastic shrinkage cracks with fly ash and GGBS is similar.
On the other hand, due to global climate change, the research and application of low-carbon materials are becoming increasingly widespread [28,29,30,31]. In the construction field, low-carbon research on recycled concrete has become a new hotspot [32]. Liu et al. [33] assessed the shrinkage of mortar containing recycled powder generated from aerated blocks and bricks by replacing cement with a ratio of 30%, and the results showed that the aerated brick powder results in a higher shrinkage of mortar. The reasons may lie in the high replacement ratio of 30%. Among them, research on recycled coarse aggregate has become increasingly advanced [34,35], while research on a recycled fine aggregate and recycled powder has not yet reached advanced conclusions due to their complex sources and significant performance differences [36]. Exploring the impact of recycled cementitious powder on concrete performance is significant.
The primary objective of this study is to promote the practical application of recycled cement paste powder in cement-based materials for real-world projects. The influence of recycled cement paste powder on the major principal strain and the crack pattern of cement paste was investigated using non-contacting two-dimensional shrinkage performance. Furthermore, the study delves into the mechanism underlying the reduction in plastic shrinkage in cement paste by recycled cement paste powder. By enhancing our understanding of the plastic shrinkage reduction capabilities of recycled cement paste powder in cement paste, this research contributes to advancing the use of recycled materials in construction applications.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The cement used in this experiment is Conch P·O 42.5 ordinary Portland cement with a specific surface area of 364 m2/kg and loss on ignition of 2.69%, provided by Anhui Conch Cement Co., Ltd., located in Wuhu City, Anhui Province, China. The chemical compositions of the cement used in this study were measured by X-ray Fluorescence technology, the results are listed in Table 1. Recycled cement paste powder was ground from the fully hydrated cement paste with water-to-cement ratio of 0.40. Table 1 shows the chemical compositions of cement used in the cement paste preparation, the CaO content is more than 63%. The size of recycled cement powder was below 0.075 mm.

2.2. Microscopic Test

2.2.1. X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

The recycled cement paste powder was first dried and then crushed in a 100% nitrogen environment, with a fineness below 80 μm. The used test instrument was Brooke D8 advanced X-ray diffractometer, provided by Brooke Corporation. The scan angle range was 10°–60°, with a speed of 0.02°/s.

2.2.2. Thermogravimetric Analysis

Thermogravimetric (TG) analysis was used to quantify the hydration products in the recycled cement paste powder. The sample preparation process was similar to that of XRD, with a fineness below 315 μm. The tested sample mass was 20 mg. The device used was a NETCHI STA 449C synchronous thermal analyzer, provided by Netchi Corporation. The temperature increased from room temperature to 1000 °C at a rate of 20 °C/min.

2.2.3. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Test

The test instrument was an FEI Quanta 650FEG field emission environmental scanning electron microscope, supplied by Field Electron and Ion Company. Before the test, the recycled cement paste powder samples were dried in a 100% nitrogen environment, and the conductivity of the surface and cross-section of the sample was enhanced by spraying Pt–Pd alloy. After that, the sample surfaces were soaked and polished with resin. The internal structure of the recycled cement paste was observed using backscattered electron imaging (BEI), and the secondary electron image (SEI) was used for the observation of the sample surface.

2.3. DIC Test

In this study, 2D-DIC technology was mainly used for shrinkage testing of cement paste. DIC technology is a non-contact and non-destructive testing method. It characterizes the relative position changes on the surface of the sample by spraying random points on the surface of the sample and tracking the displacement changes of these points [37].
After the cement paste was fully mixed, it was poured into a special mold prepared for shrinkage crack, which has a size of 300 mm × 300 mm and a thickness of 8 mm. The mold was divided into two layers, with a hole in the middle of the top layer measuring 200 mm × 200 mm. The two layers of the mold were tightly fixed together with a clamp. Therefore, the size of the cement paste used to measure the shrinkage crack was 200 mm × 200 mm × 8 mm. The surface in contact with the cement paste on the bottom plate was rough to ensure sufficient contact and fixation between the cement paste and the bottom plate. Screws were fixed at equal intervals around the side of the top plate to ensure the connection between the cement paste and the side plate. The purpose of this setup was to simulate the connection state between the cement paste and the surrounding components as much as possible.
After pouring, the specimen was placed in an environment with a temperature of 20 ± 3 °C and a relative humidity of 60% until the initial setting was completed. After that, white permeable paint was sprayed on the surface of the sample, and ink dots were then sprayed on the surface of the white paint after it had dried. The sample was then left in the same environment for DIC testing. The bottom of the sample was placed on a constant temperature plate with a temperature of 30 °C to accelerate the hydration of the cement paste.
The industrial camera used for the DIC testing was JHSM300F, provided by Jinghang Science and Technology Corporation, with a resolution of 2048 × 1536. The camera’s shooting range was 280 mm × 210 mm, and the shooting interval was 5 s. During the entire shooting process, the position of the sample and the camera were kept unchanged and undisturbed. The shooting results were calculated using VIC-2D software. The experiment setup is shown in Figure 1.

2.4. Cement Paste Samples Preparation

Five mix designs were adopted for the cement paste specimens in this experiment. The water to cement ratio was 0.40. Information regarding the five types of mix are presented in Table 2. The RCP-0 without recycled cement paste powder addition was set for comparison, the other four mix proportions of RCP-5 to RCP-30 were set based on the commonly adopted replacement ratio of recycled cement paste powder, with the increasing replacement ratio of recycled cement paste powder to the mix solid composites (cement and recycled cement paste powder). Moreover, it was acknowledged that a higher replacement ratio than 30% could have an adverse effect on the mechanical and durability properties of recycled-cement-based composites [38].

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Major Principal Strain of the Initial Crack

In cement-based materials, the variation of the major principal strain during the generation and development process of early-age plastic cracks is crucial. For the part of the test sample where cracks first appear, the numerical value of the major principal strain near the crack initiation point was extracted, and the relationship between the major principal strain and the test time was plotted. The results are shown in Figure 2.
It can be seen from Figure 2 that the variation of the major principal strain over time under all working conditions can be divided into three stages. The first stage was a plateau stage, during which the crack did not propagate, and the major principal strain remained at a relatively low value. In the second stage, the major principal strain underwent a sharp change, and the crack appeared and rapidly propagated at the extraction point. When the major principal strain increased to a certain extent, the growth rate slowed down and entered the third stage. In this stage, the value of the major principal strain maintained a relatively slow-changing plateau for the working conditions of RCP-10, RCP-5, and RCP-10, while the working conditions of RCP-20 and RCP-30 still increased in a relatively higher ratio than the other working conditions.
Specifically, for the working condition without recycled cement paste powder addition, the first stage showed the shortest time when compared with other test working conditions, indicating that the cracks appeared earliest. Under this condition, the first stage entered the second stage at 151 min, when the crack began to propagate rapidly. The time point at which the second stage entered the third stage was approximately 200 min.
For the working conditions with added recycled cement paste powder, the time and duration of the three stages varied with different powder replacement rates. The duration of the first stage in the working conditions with recycled cement paste powder was longer than RCP-0, indicating that recycled cement paste powder can effectively delay the appearance of cracks. However, the effect of different replacement rates of recycled cement paste powder on the duration of the first stage was different. From Figure 2, it can be seen that, under the working conditions with added recycled cement paste powder, the longest duration of the first stage was for the condition with RCP-10. Under this condition, the first stage entered the second stage at approximately 201 min, which was nearly 50 min later than the condition without the added recycled cement paste powder. Next was the condition with 20% recycled cement paste powder, where the time point at which the first stage entered the second stage was 190 min, which was 39 min later than the condition without added powder. Following this was the condition with a 30% replacement rate, and the time point at which the first stage ended was 177 min, which was 26 min later than RCP-0. Finally, for the condition with a 5% replacement rate, the transition time between the two stages was 161 min, which was 10 min later than the condition without the recycled cement paste powder addition.

3.2. Major Principal Strain of Line

To quantitatively evaluate the variation of the major principal strain of cement paste with recycled cement paste powder in different areas of the test specimens, the major principal strain at the midpoint of the measurement specimens was selected as a reference for comparison. The selected time interval was between 2.0 h and 4.5 h after mixing. The samples analyzed included those without any recycled cement paste powder addition, as well as those with different replacement ratios, ranging from 0% to 30%, of recycled cement paste powder. The variation of the major principal strain at the midpoint line is shown in Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7.
In general, for all the test conditions, the variation of the major principal strain at the midpoint exhibited a relatively small value at the beginning, which gradually increased with the passing of time. Meanwhile, the distribution of major principal strain presented a multi-peak and coexisting pattern. For the RCP-0 condition (without any recycled cement paste powder), the variation of major principal strain was not significant in the first three hours after mixing, as shown in Figure 3. The most dramatic variation of major principal strain occurred between 2.5 h and 3.0 h after mixing. At 3.0 h after mixing, the major principal strain appeared at the midpoint of the specimen, with a value of 0.01897, which was 7.6 times higher than the strain value of 0.00221 at the same position at 2.5 h. By comparing the crack status at this point from the photos, it can be observed that there were significant cracks within the range of specimens from 2.5 h to 3 h. Therefore, the appearance of cracks caused a significant change in the major principal strain. At the time point of 3.5 h, the major principal strain was 0.03242, which increased by 70.9% compared to that at 3.0 h. However, the variation of the major principal strain between 4.0 and 4.5 h was not significant, only increasing by 0.3%. Therefore, the initial stage of plastic crack formation was accompanied by a sharp change in the major principal strain, while the variation of the major principal strain tended to be insignificant after the formation of cracks within the time range.
For the RCP-5 condition (Figure 4), the major principal strain exhibited a different behavior compared to the condition without any added recycled cement paste powder. In this case, the sudden change in the major principal strain occurred between 3.0 h and 4.0 h. The major principal strain at 3.5 h was 0.01448, while the major principal strain at 3.0 h at the same position was 0.00120, increasing 11.1 times. The major principal strain at 4.0 h increased to 0.02351, which was a 62.3% increase compared to that at 3.5 h. At this time, the major principal strain without the addition of recycled cement paste powder was 0.03469, and a 5% replacement with recycled cement paste powder reduced the major principal strain by 32.2%. Therefore, under the condition of a recycled cement paste powder replacement rate of 5%, the variation of the major principal strain showed similar characteristics to RCP-0, and the addition of recycled cement paste powder could reduce the maximum strain effectively.
In the case of a 10% replacement ratio of recycled cement paste powder (Figure 5), unlike RCP-0, the sudden change in the major principal strain occurred between 3.5 h and 4.0 h. The major principal strain at 4.0 h was 0.02295, while the value at 3.5 h at the same position was 0.00127, increasing 17.1 times. The major principal strain at 4.5 h increased to 0.02498, which was only an 8.8% increase compared to that at 4.0 h. It is important to note that the major principal strain without any added recycled cement paste powder at 4.0 h was 0.03469, and adding recycled cement paste powder reduced the major principal strain by 28.0%. Therefore, under the condition of a 10% replacement ratio of recycled cement paste powder, the variation of the major principal strain showed similar characteristics to that without it, and the addition of recycled cement paste powder delayed the sudden changing of the major principal strain and its maximum value.
For the working condition with a 20% addition of recycled cement paste powder, the major principal stain distribution and time changes are shown in Figure 6. Unlike RCP-0, the sudden change in major principal strain occurred between 3.0 h and 4.0 h. At 4.0 h, the major principal strain at the midpoint reached a value of 0.02428, which was 95.6% higher than the strain value of 0.01241 at 3.5 h. Furthermore, at 4.5 h, the major principal strain increased by only 13.4% to reach 0.02753. Without recycled cement paste powder, the major principal strain at 4.5 h was 0.03469, and the 20% replacement ratio of recycled cement paste powder could reduce the major principal strain by 20.6%. The change in the major principal strain for the working condition with 20% recycled cement paste powder exhibited similar characteristics to the condition of RCP-0. Additionally, the addition of 20% recycled cement paste powder helped to delay the sudden change in the major principal strain and to reduce the maximum value of the major principal strain.
As for the case of RCP-30, the major principal strain distribution and time changes are shown in Figure 7. Here, unlike the condition without addition, the sudden change in the major principal strain occurred between 3.0 and 4.5 h. The major principal strain at 4.0 h was 0.03140, while at 3.5 h it was 0.02289, an increase of 41.5%. The major principal strain increased by 49.2% to 0.04685 at 4.5 h compared to 4.0 h. The major principal strain at 4.5 h without addition was 0.03469, and the addition of 30% recycled powder increased the major principal strain of the specimen by 35.1%. Therefore, the change in major principal strain for the working condition with 30% recycled cement paste powder replacement exhibited similar characteristics to that without addition, and the time of major principal strain change after crack propagation was longer than that without addition. However, the time of major principal strain change after crack propagation was longer compared to the condition without addition. Additionally, the addition of 30% recycled cement paste powder increased the maximum value of the major principal strain.

3.3. Crack Distribution

The addition of recycled cement paste affected the crack development and distribution of the cement paste specimen. A comparison was made of the distribution of the major principal strain in cement pastes under different mix proportions at a specific time. The selected time point was 4.0 h after cement was mixed with water, when the cement paste had entered the strain-hardening state. In the case of cement paste without any additives (Figure 8a), cracks had already formed and covered the entire testing area. Notably, a main crack that ran through the diagonal upper position, and a major crack parallel to the left-bottom to right-top diagonal direction on the upper left quadrant, could be observed. The cracks on the right half appeared scattered and distributed perpendicular to the left-bottom to right-top diagonal direction. When recycled cement paste powder was added under different conditions (Figure 8a–c), cracks were present in all the working conditions but with a weaker expansion than that of RCP-0. The crack distribution tended to be parallel to one side, showing a main crack with several connected small cracks. As the substitution rate increased, the correlation between cracks became stronger than that of the plain condition, and the surrounding strain extension changes were not significant. Importantly, under the condition of a 30% substitution rate, almost all cracks were interconnected and concentrated in the middle of the specimen.

3.4. Discussions

Water transportation plays a crucial role in inducing shrinkage during the plastic stage of cement paste hydration. This includes both internal water evaporation and water bleeding within the cement paste. Water bleeding causes the water inside the cement paste to migrate towards the surface, and the evaporation of surface water caused by drying gradually causes free water on the surface to be lost, transforming the flat water into curved water, which increases the negative pressure of the pores inside the cement paste, resulting in shrinkage [39]. In the absence of recycled cement paste powder, as depicted in Figure 9a, the cement paste slowly evaporates the water from the bottom to the upper surface under the action of the heater set at 30 °C at the bottom. Due to the higher temperature at the bottom than at the surface, the speed of top water evaporation is accelerated, making the plastic shrinkage of the cement paste faster in the later stage [40]. Upon incorporating recycled cement paste powder (as shown in Figure 9b), several benefits can be observed. Firstly, it reduces the amount of cement required, resulting in a decrease in hydration heat caused by the reduction in cement content [41], and a reduction in the migration of free water caused by the heat of hydration, delaying the shrinkage of ordinary cement paste [42]. Furthermore, in comparison to cement particles, recycled cement paste powder exhibits unique water absorption and release characteristics, as evident in the SEM test results presented in Figure 10 [43]. The SEI results (Figure 10a,b) show that the surface of the powder is porous. As for the inner structures, the BEI results (Figure 10c,d) show that the inner structure also contains pores, and some pores are connected with each other, which could form pathways for the transfer of water and other hydration substances [44]. Therefore, the water adjustment of the recycled cement paste powder facilitates the inhibition effect of early-age plastic shrinkage [43]. At the beginning of cement mixing, the porous recycled cement paste powder could absorb mixing water, thereby reducing the amount of free water in the cement paste and consequently minimizing the likelihood of water seepage. With the proceeding of cement hydration and the combined effect of water secretion and evaporation of cement paste, the reduction in pore water in the cement paste, due to the porous characteristics of the recycled powder (as shown in Figure 10), increases the negative pressure of the pores. This leads to the release of free water present in the recycled concrete powder, thereby delaying crack formation and suppressing the plastic shrinkage of the cement paste. Additionally, the hydration products in the recycled concrete powder, such as calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), can dissolve some ions, which reduces the filling effect of recycled cement paste powder [45]. The XRD and DTG results (Figure 11 and Figure 12) of recycled cement paste powders show that the main composition of recycled cement paste powder is calcium hydrate and C-S-H. In the XRD results, only the hydration products of the portlandite peaks are detected while, in the DTG curves, both the portlandite and C-S-H dehydration are obvious. These components can dissolve into the free water during the hydration process and enhance the porosity of the recycled cement paste powder.
Under different cement replacement ratios, the inhibition effect is different. For example, at a replacement ratio of less than 5%, the adjustment of hydration heat and free water transportation effect is limited, resulting in limited early-age shrinkage inhibition. However, with the higher replacement ratio of cement by recycled cement paste powder, too much water was absorbed during hydration and not enough water was released from the recycled cement paste power, which also shows its limited effect on early-age shrinkage [33]. At a replacement ratio of approximately 10%, the balance of water absorption and release can be achieved throughout the entire early-age hydration process, resulting in a significant effect on early-age shrinkage inhibition.

4. Conclusions

The influence of recycled cement paste powder on the early-age plastic shrinkage of cement-based materials was investigated in this study using non-contacting two-dimensional digital image technology. The major principal strain, and the cracking development performance, of specimens with different mix proportions were evaluated, and the influential mechanism was explained from the viewpoint of the porous properties of recycled cement paste powder. The key findings are summarized as follows:
(1)
Adding recycled cement paste powders can effectively improve the early plastic shrinkage of cement paste. However, the improvement effect is greatly influenced by the substitution rate. A 10% substitution rate of recycled cement paste powder to solid composites shows the best plastic shrinkage control effect, which could delay the appearance of cracks by 33.3%.
(2)
The variation of major principal strain along the specimen’s centerline is influenced by different substitution rates of recycled cement paste powder. The optimal substitution rate is 10%. At this point, the major principal strain can be reduced by 28.0% compared to the case of no addition of recycled cement paste powder while, for the condition with a substitution rate of 30%, the major principal strain of the specimen is increased by 35.1%.
(3)
The incorporation of recycled cement paste powders proves to be effective in delaying the onset of cracks in the specimens and improving the overall development of cracks. Under the condition without the addition of recycled cement paste powder, the crack expansion shows a scattered development state and, with the increase in the substitution rate of recycled cement paste powders, the correlation of crack distribution gradually increases. At a substitution rate of 30%, all cracks become interconnected and concentrated in the middle of the specimen.
(4)
The mechanism of improving the plastic shrinkage of cement paste by adding recycled cement paste powders lies in its porosity and internal hydration products. When added to cement paste, the porous characteristics inside the recycled cement paste powders can regulate the state of free water inside the cement paste. Furthermore, the hydration products inside can further regulate the plastic shrinkage by precipitating when encountering water.
(5)
This study will provide a reference for the application of recycled cementitious materials in the controlling of cracks in concrete structures. Additionally, the study of the related mechanism, of the development of cracks in the plastic stage of cementitious materials with recycled cement paste powder, can lay a foundation for subsequent research on the crack control of complex materials in coupled conditions of concrete materials. With the increasing emphasis on low-carbon construction materials, future research on carbonated recycled materials in the concrete shrinkage-controlling field is needed.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.W. and Z.L.; validation, Q.T. and L.Z.; investigation, Y.W.; data curation, Y.W.; writing—original draft preparation, D.W.; writing—review and editing, Y.W.; visualization, W.W.; supervision, Z.L.; funding acquisition, Y.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by China Construction Third Engineering Bureau First Engineering Co., Ltd. (No. CSCEC3B1C-2022-09).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. The DIC experiment setup.
Figure 1. The DIC experiment setup.
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Figure 2. The development of the major principal strain in the first appearance of a crack in cement pastes with different mix proportions.
Figure 2. The development of the major principal strain in the first appearance of a crack in cement pastes with different mix proportions.
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Figure 3. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-0.
Figure 3. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-0.
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Figure 4. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-5.
Figure 4. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-5.
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Figure 5. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-10.
Figure 5. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-10.
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Figure 6. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-20.
Figure 6. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-20.
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Figure 7. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-30.
Figure 7. The major principal strain distribution and time changes under the working condition of RCP-30.
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Figure 8. The crack distribution of cement paste with different mix proportions: (a) RCP-0; (b) RCP-10; (c) RCP-20; and (d) RCP-30.
Figure 8. The crack distribution of cement paste with different mix proportions: (a) RCP-0; (b) RCP-10; (c) RCP-20; and (d) RCP-30.
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Figure 9. The water movement and the relationship with cement particles in the plastic shrinkage stage: (a) cement paste without recycled cement paste powder; (b) cement paste with recycled cement paste powder.
Figure 9. The water movement and the relationship with cement particles in the plastic shrinkage stage: (a) cement paste without recycled cement paste powder; (b) cement paste with recycled cement paste powder.
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Figure 10. SEM results of recycled cement paste powder: (a) SEI results at 500 times magnification; (b) SEI results at 2000 times magnification; (c) BEI results at 500 times magnification; and (d) BEI results at 2000 times magnification.
Figure 10. SEM results of recycled cement paste powder: (a) SEI results at 500 times magnification; (b) SEI results at 2000 times magnification; (c) BEI results at 500 times magnification; and (d) BEI results at 2000 times magnification.
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Figure 11. XRD curves of recycled cement paste powder (p: portlandite).
Figure 11. XRD curves of recycled cement paste powder (p: portlandite).
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Figure 12. DTG curves of recycled cement paste powder.
Figure 12. DTG curves of recycled cement paste powder.
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Table
Table 1. The main chemical compositions of Portland cement (%).
Table 1. The main chemical compositions of Portland cement (%).
CompoundsCaOSiO2Al2O3Fe2O3SO3MgONa2Oeq
Proportion (%)63.7521.444.553.472.432.370.48
Table
Table 2. The mix proportion design of cement paste.
Table 2. The mix proportion design of cement paste.
TypeCement (%)Water (%)Recycled Cement Paste Powder (%)
RCP-071.4328.570.00
RCP-567.8628.573.57
RCP-1064.2928.577.14
RCP-2057.1428.5714.29
RCP-3050.0028.5721.43
Note: Regarding RCP-X, RCP stands for cement paste with recycled cement paste powder, and X stands for the replacing ratio of recycled cement paste powder in cement paste.
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Wang, Y.; Lu, Z.; Wang, D.; Tan, Q.; Wu, W.; Zhu, L. Influence of Recycled Cement Paste Powder on Early-Age Plastic Shrinkage and Cracking of Cement-Based Materials. Sustainability 2023, 15, 10661. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310661

AMA Style

Wang Y, Lu Z, Wang D, Tan Q, Wu W, Zhu L. Influence of Recycled Cement Paste Powder on Early-Age Plastic Shrinkage and Cracking of Cement-Based Materials. Sustainability. 2023; 15(13):10661. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310661

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Yuanhuang, Zheng Lu, Dianchao Wang, Qihang Tan, Weiwei Wu, and Liming Zhu. 2023. "Influence of Recycled Cement Paste Powder on Early-Age Plastic Shrinkage and Cracking of Cement-Based Materials" Sustainability 15, no. 13: 10661. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310661

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