Shoot Phenology in Bambusoideae: A Review

Abstract

The study of plant phenology is important nowadays since global climate-changing phenomena are impacting the growing patterns and growing periods of plants. Bamboo is of great importance to the agriculture and forestry of temperate, subtropical to tropical regions, especially of Asia. Although some temperate genera can thrive under different climatic conditions, from the Korean Peninsula to South China, it is not known how bamboo will be affected by climate change, so the collection of data related to bamboo phenology could be of interest to research related to climate change. In this review, we describe available data on the phenology of 8 temperate genera, including 79 species, varieties and forms and 4 subtropical–tropical bamboo genera, including 19 species. Primarily, culm shoot physiology is discussed with some reference to leaf phenology data, where available, as well as their interaction. Since the data available in Western literature is often limited to the definition of season rather than exact dates and periods of given months, there is still a great need to explore more about the exact phenology of individual bamboo species to be able to determine the impact of periodic changes in weather patterns or climate change on bamboo phenology in the future.

1. Introduction

Phenology is the study of the changes in the seasonal timing of budburst, shooting, leaf flushing, leaf fall, flowering, dormancy [1,2]. Vegetation phenology is defined as changes in plant growth and development such as germination, branching, leaf spreading, flowering, and fruiting influenced by the changes in a seasonal climate [3]. Phenology is also described as the scientific study of plant life cycles (such as vegetative and generative phases) and of how the seasonal and interannual variations can influence those life cycles [4]. Vegetation phenology plays an important role in the monitoring of climate change [5]. Phenology in plants is affected by numerous factors, such as short-term environmental factors that can cause phenological patterns (called proximate cause), while the evolutionary force that can lead to those phenological patterns is called the ultimate cause [6]. Therefore, it can be said that environmental factors, biotic (organisms such as viruses, fungi, bacteria, insects, and plants) and abiotic factors (sunlight, wind, temperature, water, and soil), directly correlate to the plant’s physiological development. Both biotic stress (viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, arachnids and weeds) and abiotic stress (oxidative stress, salt stress, water deficit, extreme temperature stress, and flooding stress) hugely impact the plant’s physiological development. Plants tend to adjust their developmental stages and metabolism in order to survive under a stressed environment, so phenological changes might occur due to the stress conditions during their life cycles. The timing and scale of response are governed by the severity and duration of the stress [7].

The annual study of plant phenology is important in the monitoring of climate change. Climate change can alter plant phenology because, primarily, temperature determines the timing of plant developmental stages, often alone, but sometimes in interaction with other factors, such as the photoperiod [8,9]. The study of changes in plant phenology is also important for agronomy and agro-meteorology to document the plant response to unpredictable climate change, which often leads to loss in agricultural productivity.

The increment of atmospheric (CO₂) is the main factor of changes in temperature and precipitation, and it can also affect changes in phenology directly [5,10]. The effect of elevated (CO₂) on the vegetative and reproductive growth of Xanthium strumarium was studied, and it was found that the vegetative growth increased with an extension of the flowering period when the plants were exposed to elevated CO₂ [11].

Phenological responses to environmental changes are always species-specific [9]. Plant phenology at a species-specific level involves two opposing factors. The first one is the characteristics of the individual plant (such as genome, age, and evolution within a plant community) that are affected by biotic potential, photosynthetic activity, nutrient absorption, constructive metabolism, etc. The other one is the environmental component, which is representative of the limited resources, stress, respiration, photosynthesis, transpiration, aging factors, etc. [4]. The timing shift of plant phenological events is primarily affected by temperature and photoperiod [12]. Daily temperature fluctuation also influences the changes in the phenology of plants and insects [13]. Some environmental factors that drive plant phenological changes have been studied [4,14], and a model was developed to analyze the date of leaf unfolding for 18 North American temperate tree species, including 11 genera at three different locations and collected annual leaf unfolding dates over the 20th century with daily temperature data. They found that the date of leaf unfolding of most species changed from the 20th century to the 21st century because of the impact of temperature on the phenology of the leaf. Two groups of species were analyzed according to their sensitivity to climate change, which were species that consistently had a larger advance in their leaf unfolding date with increasing latitude, and species in which the advance in leaf unfolding was different from the center to the northern vs. southern margins of their range. Early leafing species showed a greater advance in the leaf unfolding date than late leafing species. As described before, changes in phenology are also related to the growing season and crop productivity in agriculture. Changes in the time of crop cultivation, such as tilling, sowing, and harvesting as well as early fruit ripening, are because of warmer summers [15]. For example, the cotton crop phenology during a new “temperature regime” was studied in Australia [16]. In the period of normal sowing time of cotton in Australia, rising temperature promoted a faster phenological development of all phases such as the date of emergence, first square (flower bud) formation, first flowering, first open ball formation, last effective square, last effective flower, and last harvestable ball in all tested locations which encountered temperature increase (the increment of maximum temperature was greater than 0.6 °C). Among them, the largest change for all phases was observed in the most southern growing areas of Warren and Hillston when the crop was grown from a regular sowing time. Since there is no review literature dealing with a summary of phenological observations in Bambusoideae, our aim was to summarize all information available on the topic in this review.

2. Phenological Studies in Bamboo Species

Vegetation phenology is an important factor that affects forest carbon uptake and storage, which is important since bamboo forests have the capacity for strong carbon sequestration [17,18]. Bamboo forests are widely distributed in Brazil, China, India, and 29 other countries which cover 0.8% of the world’s forest area [19]. The benefit of establishing bamboo forests is that they keep strong carbon sink capacities [20]; however, they are sensitive to climate change, especially in China, where temperature changes from south to north and precipitation from west to east [21,22]. Bamboo forests play an important role in maintaining the global carbon balance and coping with climate change [20]. The impact of changes in vegetation phenology was studied by using the GPP (gross primary productivity) and NEP (net ecosystem productivity) data of bamboo forests based on the leaf area index (LAI) assimilation-based phenology from 2001 to 2011 [18]. According to their result, the mean annual GPP value (434.74 ± 257.93 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹) and NEP values (141.42 ± 82.54 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹) showed that bamboo forest ecosystems keep strong carbon sequestration, and they perform as carbon sinks. They also found that an increase in the LOS (length of the growing season) makes GPP and NEP increment by means of a positive correlation in approximately 62% of the region where they studied in China.

2.1. Factors Affecting Bamboo Phenology

The air temperature and precipitation usually influence the growth of bamboos as it was observed in the case of Phyllostachys nidularia [23]. The shooting period was reported to be from the beginning of May to the end of June, which coincided with a significant rise in precipitation. Additionally, soil temperature plays an important role in bamboo new shoot development, as the impact of soil temperature on the growth of P. praecox f. prevernalis was investigated [24]. Their results showed that shooting was initiated when soil temperature reached 8–8.5 °C and the number of shoots increased during 10–16 °C of soil temperature. When the soil temperature reached about 16 °C, the shoot sprouting decreased and ceased. P. praecox, P. iridescens, P. dulcis were evaluated for their shoot growing conditions in different altitudes in Tongzi, China [25]. P. praecox had the highest number of shoots and survival rate and was the most adaptable species at 1400 m altitude, while P. dulcis was the least adaptable. In contrast, P. edulis was the most flexible at 1100 m altitude while P. praecox was not. Some other authors also concluded that air temperature is the main factor affecting the sprouting period of bamboo [26]. In 1979, the shoot growth of Phyllostachys nigra was observed, and it was found to increase when temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity rose [27]. P. pubescens (P. edulis) was also studied in 1987 and 1988, at Longtan Village in Tianzhu Mountain, China [28]. In the 1987 study period, the average daily air temperature in early March reached 10 °C; the bamboo shoots emerged on the 7th of March, while in 1988, when the average daily air temperature reached 10 °C in early April, the bamboo shoots began to sprout on the 1st of April. They pointed out that the optimal temperature for shoot growth was when the daily average air temperature was between 10 and 20 °C. The growth of bamboo shoots was greater at night than during the day because of the effect of humidity.

Additionally, altitude influences the phenology of bamboos, as was reported for moso bamboo. The phenological phases of moso bamboo P. pubescens (P. edulis) were studied at different altitudes in Anhui Province, China, for two years in 1984 and 1985 [29]. In 1984, the bamboo plants at the altitudes of 250 m, 400 m and 670 m in the Huangshan Tea forest area started shooting on the 25th of March, the 2nd of April and the 5th of May and ended at the 22nd, 17th and 30th of April, respectively. In the second area in Cai village in Jing County, the shooting period was found to be from 29th of March to 23rd of April at 100 m altitude above sea level. Moso bamboo at the 100 m and 110 m above sea level site located in Lujiang were observed to have a shooting period from 30th of March and 1st of April to the 28th and the 30th of April, respectively. The bamboo at Pai Raoyuan River at an altitude of 470 m had its shooting period from the 16th and 31st of March to 26th of April. In 1985, the authors found that the plants had their shooting period from the 7th and 8th and 2nd of March to 25th, 25th and 26th–30th of April in Caicun, Jingxian County, where the altitudes of the sites were 100 m, 110 m, and 100 m above sea level, respectively. In Huoshan, Taoyuanhe area, the shoot emergence stared from the 5th to 25th of April at the altitude of 470 m. With regard to leaf unfolding in this species, it was observed on the 25th of May at 250 m, 2nd and 7th of June at 400 m and 670 m in the Huangshan Tea forest area, 31st of May at 100 m in Cai village in Jing County, 23rd and 21st of May at 100 m and 110 m in the Lujiang area, and 11th and 11th–16th of June at 470 m in the Pai Raoyuan River area in 1984. The leaf unfolding was found on 31st of May, 2nd of June, 31st of May at 100 m, 110 m, 100 m in Caicun, Jingxian County, and on the 20th of June at 470 m in the Huoshan Taoyuanhe area in 1985. The daily average temperature during the shooting period was above 10 °C. Based on their results, it can be observed that the date of shooting was delayed with the higher altitude.

The growth characteristics of Chimonobambusa utilis were studied at different altitudes in Dingjing Mountain and Qingba Mountain in Guizhou Province, China where the altitude is between 1000 and 2000 m. Altitude ≥1300–1450 m was identified as low altitude, ≥1450–1600 m as low and medium altitude, ≥1600–1750 as medium and high altitude, and ≥1750–1900 m as high altitude [30]. The normal shooting period of C. utilis at medium to high altitude was from August to September, while at a low altitude, it was later from September to October; however, from their observations they concluded that the bamboo shooting period was slightly prolonged with increasing altitude, from 21 days to 25 days from low altitude to high altitude.

Precipitation and water availability in the soil are also vital factors affecting bamboo phenology, as it was observed in the case of the vegetative phenology and growth of deciduous bamboo Bambusa arnhemica. The species was observed monthly for 2.5 years in the Australian monsoonal tropical area in lower riparian, upper riparian, and hill sites [31]. The study showed that leaf flushing began shortly before the first rainfall in riparian sites, and it extended for a longer period in 2001; however, it began shortly after the first rainfall and reached maximum over a shorter period in 2002, while in the hill site, leaf flush started 1 month after the first rainfall according to the 3-year study period. The emergence of first-year new culm shoots started earlier during the onset of the rainy season at two riparian sites in 2001, than in other studied years and at the hill site. Leaf flushing on mature culms appeared mostly before culm elongation at the beginning of the wet season. Culms reached about half of their mature length when the flood occurred, then elongation was completed a month after floodwaters decreased in riparian sites. Even though the same species grows in different places, the leaf flushing and culm elongation occurred at different times. It can be summarized that the leaf phenology can be altered to grow according to the environmental conditions under which they will survive. With regards to physiological processes related to bamboo phenology, water use in moso bamboo (P. edulis) was examined [32] according to spring leafing phenology with four different culm ages, which were newly sprouted, at 1, 2, and 3 years old, at Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China. The mean annual temperature of the study site from 2008 to 2017 was 17.6 ± 0.4 °C. The tested 3-year-old culms were found to have the least water utilization compared to other age culms during the experimental period from March to June 2018. They concluded in their study that leaf phenology of moso bamboo might influence water redistribution in a bamboo stand to temporarily younger ones (newly sprouted culms and 1-year-old culms) more than to other culms which are 2 years old and 3 years old, after finding a dramatic increase in the transpiration response in younger culms. With regards to the interaction of water use and different age culms, they concluded that the negative age effect of water use might be influenced by both the leaf renewal of established culms and the branch development and leafing stages of newly sprouted culms. Moreover, it was explained that the aging culms have thick cell walls with smaller cell cavities so that the water storage ability was decreased [33]. Consequently, the 3-year-old culms had lower moister content than other younger ones. The influence of ramet age, phenology, and drought on the transpiration of moso bamboo was studied in Guilin Botanical Garden in Southern China, which has a subtropical monsoon climate [34]. The mean annual air temperature of the site was 19.3 °C. The study showed that the daily maximum sap flux density was higher, which lead to an increasing transpiration rate in less than >3-year-old ramets, results which are similar to those reported by [32]. The above results showed that the transpiration of moso bamboo was influenced by culm age, phenological stages, and soil moisture content.

The interactions of plants in their native wild environment have long been studied. The plant and its local environment’s interaction can be assessed by morphology, anatomy, and physiology [35,36]. In general, bamboo plants can adapt to a wide range of environments in the wild from adverse to near optimal environments. There is limited information available on the comparison of different bamboo species with regards to their water requirements, and species comparative measurements of photosynthesis—gas exchange under the same environmental conditions on a longer term (at least one year). In this respect, one of the best scientific reports was carried out in Rome, Italy [17]. Besides the growth pattern, including culm and leaf phenology, the photosynthetic activity and gas exchange (net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate) were carried out on Phyllostachys viridiglaucescens, P. pubescens (P. edulis), P. bambusoides and Bambusa ventricosa. The highest net photosynthetic rates and stomatal conductance were measured in early autumn in all species, with the lowest ones (30% of maximum) in spring for the 3 Phyllostachys species and in winter for Bambusa ventricose (10% of the maximum). The species had the highest water use efficiency in autumn and winter and the lowest ones in spring and summer (33% of the maximum). Their results are summarized in

Table 1. Summary of gas-exchange measurements of 4 bamboo taxa in Rome, Italy [17].

Name of Taxa	Net Photosynthetic Rate μmol m−2 s−1 (Maximum)	Stomatal Conductance Mmol m−2 s−1 (Maximum)	Water Use Efficiency μmol mmol−1 (Maximum)
Phyllostachys viridiglaucensens	16.6 ± 0.4	173.8 ± 0.5	16.7 ± 0.2
P. pubescens	16.3 ± 0.3	158.7 ± 0.4	17.0 ± 0.4
P. bambusoides	16.0 ± 0.5	152.8 ± 0.5	15.1 ± 0.3
Bambusa ventricosa	12.8 ± 0.5	146.6 ± 0.2	10.9 ± 0.3

.

Additionally, the shooting rhythm of Fargesia decurvata was observed under different canopy conditions in a deciduous-–broad-leaf forest, evergreen–deciduous–broad-leaf mixed forest, and evergreen–broad-leaf forest in Nanchuan District, China, in 2016 [37]. The results showed that in an evergreen–deciduous–broad-leaf mixed forest and in a deciduous–broad-leaf forest, the bamboo species had an early shooting date, a shooting period of about 110 days total, high shoot number, and high shooting rate. In contrast, in the evergreen–broad-leaf forest, the bamboo species produced a late shooting date and shorter shooting period of about 88 days, low shoot number, and low shooting rate. On-year and off-year bamboo forests showed different phenological change patterns [38]. The phenological variation of bamboo forests was studied, and it was observed that broadleaf and coniferous forests had the same growing cycles between 2018 and 2019, meaning that they have similar one-year growing cycles, while on-year and off-year bamboo forests showed different growing cycles and patterns. The slight changes in bamboo phenology can also affect other living organisms, such as animals. The shoots, stems, and leaves of mature and young bamboo plants are beneficial for both herbivores and people [39]. Annual variations in fiber content, protein, lipid and ash, and carbohydrates in bamboo leaves and culms of four Phyllostachys taxa (P. aurea, P. aureosulcata, P. glauca, and P. nuda) were evaluated during the study period of 2008–2010 in China [40]. According to the variation in nutritional content, the giant panda prefers leaves in summer and fall because of the decreased fiber content and more energy in the form of protein and fat content than that which can be found in the culms. Culm consumption was seen in spring because the culms at that time of year were found to have the lowest fiber content, and the starch percentage was high (2.5-fold of starch percentage in leaves).

2.2. Phenological Studies in Temperate Bamboos

2.2.1. Acidosasa

Acidosasa genus includes 20 species distributed in China and 1 species in Vietnam. Culms of A. edulis can reach 8–12 m tall and 6 cm in diameter and is native to Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang provinces of China. In China, new shoots appear in spring or early summer, and the flowering time is summer or autumn [41]. The shooting period of A. edulis was studied in Linan, China, for two years and the recorded annual average temperature of that region was 16.5 °C [42]. A. edulis shoots were found from the 6th of April to the 18th of May (43 days in total shooting period) in 2014 and from the of 8th April to the 19th of May (41 days in total) in 2015. They found that the cumulative growth of A. edulis is greater during daytime than nighttime.

2.2.2. Chimonocalamus

There are 16 species, and 1 variety of the Chimonocalamus genus, that grow in Sino-Himalayan areas naturally. New shoots can be found in autumn according to [41], while the new shoot emergence of this genus is in June and July [43]. C. delicatus is an ornamental bamboo found in Yunnan: Jinping (Fenshuiling). It can grow at an altitude of 2100 m. Shooting occurs from June to July [41]. The growth of C. delicatus was examined from May to December 2017 in Fumin, Shuangjiang and Mile villages, China [44]. The annual average temperature was 15.8 °C in this region. This species began to shoot on the 10th of March, and its peak shooting period was between June and August, stopping shooting on the 30th of December. The shooting period of this species was found to last 290 days total.

2.2.3. Drepanostachyum

Drepanostachyum genus covers 19 species: 15 species and 1 variety in China, and 4 species in Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal. This genus often grows on the steep slopes along rivers or in stone gaps. New shoots develop in spring, and flowering and fruiting can be found in summer to early autumn [41], while another source states that this genus has new shoot emergence in summer and early autumn [45].

Drepanostachyum ludianense can be found in Guizhou, Luodian, on limestone hills at an altitude of 600–1000 m, drooping along steep slopes like curtains [41]. However, the date of shooting emergence is not mentioned in this source. The growth and development of D. ludianense was studied from 2nd August to 10th October at Yungan township, Guizhou Province in 2006, characterized by an average annual temperature of 19 °C [46]. In this study, the shoot emergence of this bamboo species lasted about 60 days from the 22nd of August to the 20th of October, with the peak shoot emergence occurring between the 6th and 25th of September. The shoot survival rate was 54.63%, and the young culm mortality was 45.63%. The authors pointed out that this high shoot and young culm mortality occurred because of nutrient deficiency, pest and disease infestation, and rat damage. The growth period of this species was found to be between 15 and 45 days. In this study, they observed that the growth of this species increased at night (1.42 times) more than during the day.

2.2.4. Fargesia

Fargesia genus contains more than 100 species. In total, 104 species and 1 variety are distributed in China, except for F. racemosa. F. racemosa is distributed in Eastern Nepal and India, while F. fansipanensis is native to Northern Vietnam; some species possibly exist undescribed in Northern Myanmar. Many species are planted in gardens in Europe, the USA, Japan and other countries. In general, new Fargesia shoots arise from summer to autumn [41], while other sources mention that the new shoots of this genera occur from May to September [47].

F. yuanjiangensis grows its new shoots in July [41]. The phenology of three different bamboo taxa, including F. yuanjiangensis, was observed in 2022 [48]. The samples were taken from the cultivated bamboo garden of Southwest Forestry University in Yunnan Province, China. F. yuanjiangensis started to shoot in July. The average daily temperature recorded in the tested area was 20 °C in July. According to their results, the shooting time of this species did not change during the observed 6 years. The branching started simultaneously on the 1-year culms from May to July. Their new finding was that the branching and leafing stages of monopodial bamboos do not overlap as they do in sympodial bamboo.

2.2.5. Indocalamus

Indocalamus genus produces new shoots in spring and summer. In this genus, there are 34 species, 5 varieties and 2 forms which are found in China. It is distributed in the south of the Changjiang River, China. I. longiauritus sprouts new shoots from April to May, and it is found in the Henan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Guizhou, Guangdong, Fujian provinces of China [41]. I. longiauritus was examined for its new shooting in 2009 in Nanjing [49]. The average annual temperature for the tested site was 15.2 °C. The authors found that the shooting started at the beginning of February and ended at the end of May.

2.2.6. Oligostachyum

In this genus, there are 17 species and 1 variety which are found in Eastern, Central and Southern China, with a shooting period from end of spring to beginning of summer. O. lubricum can be found in Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, China, and this species is cultivated in Xuanzhou, Anhui. Its shooting period is from May to October, and flowering is found in May [41]. The shooting time of O. lubricum was studied in Linan, China [42]. The annual average temperature of that region was 16.5 °C. The shooting period of O. lubricum was found to be very long (203 days) from the 6th of April to the 25th of October in 2014 and 200 days from the 8th of April to the 24th of October in 2015.

2.2.7. Phyllostachys

The Phyllostachys genus includes 69 species, approximately, including 6 varieties, and 45 forms. All species are distributed in some parts of China except Northeast China, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, and Xinjiang and can be cultivated in gardens. Many species were introduced into Europe and the USA. Although new shoots appear from March to June, most species can be found shooting in May [50]. Depending on local ecological conditions, the shooting period of this genus generally starts in March or April and is prolonged until April or May. P. arcana, P. bissetti, P. dulcis, P. elegans, P. nuda, and P. viridiglaucescens are the earliest; the others follow in a sequence that is fairly consistent though not invariable [51].

P. aurea is distributed in the south area of Yellow river and produces new shoots in May [50]. In Zhejiang Province in the southeast coast of China, the Lei bamboo forest (P. aurea) was examined for phenology based on assimilated MODIS LAI time series data [52]. Lei bamboo began to sprout in the middle of March and early April during on years.

P. bambusoides, the new shoots of which can be seen in late May in the places where this species grows, in areas along and south of the Yellow River, was also introduced into Japan [50]. The new culm development of P. bambusoides was studied from January to December 2005 in Rome, Italy [17]. The mean minimum air temperature of the coldest month (February) was 5.6 °C, and the mean maximum air temperature of the hottest months (July–August) was 31 °C. The dry period lasted from May to August (the mean maximum air temperature was 29 °C). The new culms of P. bambusoides sprouted at the end of May and sheath fell from the middle of June to the middle of July. With regards to new leaf development, 70% of old leaves dropped during the new culm growing period. P. bambusoides emerged its new leaves in the middle of July, and its maximum expansion was at the end of July while old leaves (80%) fell in June. The shooting period of P. bambusoides was also studied in Linan, China, with a recorded annual average temperature of that region being 16.5 °C [42]. The shooting period of this species was in May–June in 2014 and 2015. The shooting period of P. bambusoides began from the 2nd to 28th of May in a forest in Hangzhou, China in 1988 and 1989 [53]. It can be noted that the period of new culm shooting of P. bambusoides is similar in the reports, although they are grown in different locations.

P. bambusoides f. castillonis, an ornamental form, grows new shoots in middle to late April. It is often cultivated in China (Anji Bamboo Garden, Nanjing Forestry University, Louguantai Bamboo Garden, etc.) and it can be found in gardens in Japan and Europe [50]. P. bambusoides f. castillonis was examined for shooting in Taizhou Area, China in 2014 [54]. The average temperature of the tested area in 2014 was 14.4–15.1 °C. The research showed that the shooting time began on 15 May, and shooting finished on 11 June, lasting for 28 days in total. The peak period of shooting was between 23 and 31 May. Shoot mortality was only 20% until 21 May, but rose to 50–60% in the later shooting period. Then, 36% plus 25% of total shoot mortality occurred in shoots from less than 10 cm to between 10 and 20 cm in height. However, according to the first source [50], P. bambusoides f. castillonis sprouts new shoots in the middle and late April. The different shooting periods reported in these two studies can be a result of the different locations with prevailing different climatic conditions. The shooting period of Phyllostachys bambusoides f. shouzhu was from 6 May to 4 June, a 30-day-long period in 2010 in Zhusan, China, with an annual average temperature of 14–16 °C [55]. The shoot emergence of P. bambusoides f. marliacea was also examined in Zhejiang Province in 2010 [56]. With an average temperature of 15.9 °C during the observation period of shooting, this species began to shoot on the 12th of May, and the shooting period was 32 days long.

Phyllostachys dulcis produces new shoot in late April at Jiangsu and Zhejiang in China, and was also introduced to the USA [50]. The shooting period of P. dulcis was studied in Linan, China, with the annual average temperature of that region being 16.5 °C [42]. The shooting period of this species was from the 15th of April to 6th of May in 2014 and 17th of April to 9th of May in 2015. The total shooting period was 22 and 23 days, respectively.

P. edulis, also known as moso bamboo, forms its new shoots in May and is distributed in the Mount Qinling and area around the Han River to the south of the Changjiang River and in Taiwan. It is also cultivated in some area of the Yellow River. Introduced into Japan, Europe, and the USA [50], it is the most economically important species of the genus. In Zhejiang Province in the southeast coast of China, a moso bamboo (P. edulis) forest was observed for phenology based on assimilated MODIS LAI time series data [52]. Moso bamboo began to sprout in the middle of March to early April during on years. The shooting period of P. edulis was reported to be completed within 55 days of initiation [57]. P. pubescens (P. edulis) was observed for shooting time from the 1st of December to the last week of February at the bank of the middle and lower reaches of the Yongbu River from 1986 to 1989 with a recorded average temperature of 18–19 °C [58]. P. pubescens (P. edulis) new culm shoot emergence was at the beginning of April, and the sheath fell from the middle of April to the middle of June in Rome, Italy, in 2005 [17], while the new leaves in P. pubescens (P. edulis) appeared in June and the maximum expansion was reached in the middle of July. The mean minimum air temperature of the coldest month (February) was 5.6 °C, and the mean maximum air temperature of the hottest months (July–August) was 31 °C, while the dry period lasted from May to August (the mean maximum air temperature was 29 °C). P. pubescens (P. edulis) was also studied in Hunan Province to determine the growth dynamics in 2005. The average temperature was 18 °C. The shooting period of P. pubescens (P. edulis) in this study was from the last week of March to the middle ten days of April [59]. The growth and rhythm of the clonal population of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. pubescens, syn. P. edulis) were identified [60] in Haiziping, Yunnan Province, China from middle of March to May 2007, with the average temperature of 19 °C. The authors found the sprouting of shoots began on the 22nd of March and it lasted about 50 days. Moreover, the highest number of bamboo shoots was found from 29 March to 4 May. The bamboo shoot survival rate was 61.42% while the bamboo shoots were developing for around 51 days. The increase in culm diameter stopped after 21 days of shoot emergence. P. heterocycla (P. edulis) was observed for shooting and young bamboo height growth in Hunan Province, China in 2013 [61]. The results showed that the shooting time was from the middle of March to the middle of April, and it lasted about 30 days. Again, in 2016, P. heterocycla (P. edulis) was also studied in Hunan Province [62]. In their study, P. heterocycla (P. edulis) showed its shooting from mid-March to mid-April and lasted about 33 days. According to their results, the shoot phenology of this species does not seem to change significantly through the years in that province. In their study period [62,63], the average temperature was 17.2 °C. With the above differences in results in mind, the statement that the daily temperature fluctuation also influences the phenological changes of plants [13] is also verified here. Several research results have proven that the vertical growth of culms follow the slow–fast–slow growth law and indicated that the growth progress of P. heterocycla (P. edulis) occurred more during the day than at night [60,61,62]. P. heterocycla (P. edulis) cv. Tubaeformis was studied for its shooting time and was determined to be from around the 5th of April till the 29th–30th of April every year [63].

The new shoots of P. elegans are produced in the middle of April. The species is distributed in Zhejiang, Hunan, Guangdong, and Hainan in China, and was introduced into the USA [50]. P. elegans was studied for its shooting period in Linan, China. The annual average temperature of that region was 16.5 °C during the study period. The shooting period of this species was found to be from the 31st of March to 6th of May in 2014 (37 days in total) and 30th of March to 8th of May in 2015 (39 days in total) [42].

P. fimbriligula produces its new shoots in May and is distributed in Zhejiang and Anhui in China [50]. The shooting period of P. fimbriligula was observed to be from 10th of April to 31st of May at the middle and lower reaches of the Yongbu River bank from 1986 to 1989 [64] with a recorded average annual temperature of 18–19 °C, while the shooting period of P. fimbriligula lasted from 2nd to 17th of May in the forest near Hangzhou in 1988 and 1989 [53]. The shooting period of P. fimbriligula was also studied in Linan, China with an annual average temperature of that region being 16.5 °C during the studied period. The shooting period was from the 15th to the 30th of April in 2014 and 19th of April to 3rd May in 2015. The shooting period was 15 days long in both years [42].

P. glauca is distributed in areas along the Yellow River and Changjiang River and was introduced to the USA. It grows its new shoots from middle April to late May [50]. P. glauca was studied in 1984 to evaluate the shoot growing period in Luoning Country, Henan Province [65]. The shoot emergence began in early or the middle of April, and it continued shooting for 25 days. The annual average temperature of the observation site was 13.7 °C. The shooting period of P. glauca was studied for 3 years continuously by [66] in the bamboo garden in Donggang District, China. The average annual temperature was 12.6 °C. They observed this species’ shoot emergence to start in late April, and the shooting period was about 40–70 days long.

P. iridescens produces new shoots in middle to late April and is distributed in Jiangsu, Zhejiang provinces of China [50]. The shooting period of P. iridescens was also studied in Linan, China, with an annual average temperature of that region being 16.5 °C [42]. The shooting period of this species was from the 6th of April to the 18th of May in 2014 and 8th of April to 16th of May in 2015. The period of shoot sprouting was 39 days total in 2014, and 38 days in total in 2015. P. iridescens was found to have its cumulative growth be greater at night than during the day. The shooting period of P. iridenscens was observed to begin from the 19th of March to the 30th of April in a forest near Hangzhou in 1988 and 1989 [53].

The new shoot emergence of P. mannii was reported to be in early May. It can be found in the areas from the Yellow River to the Changjiang River, to Southeast Tibet, India and introduced to the USA [50]. P. mannii cultivated in the bamboo garden of Southwest Forestry University in Yunnan Province, China, was observed for phenological study [48]. P. mannii started shoot-bud differentiation in autumn, and shooting began in March. The branching of P. mannii new culms started in May. The temperature recordings in the tested area were 14 °C in March, 19 °C in May, 20 °C in July, 12 °C in November, and 9 °C in January.

P. meyeri produces new shoots in late April and is distributed in Henan, Shaanxi, areas along the Changjiang river and areas to the south in China, and was also introduced in the USA [50]. P. meyeri was studied for shooting time under the average annual temperature of 15.2–15.6 °C in 2000 at Dixi Town, Wuxing District, Huzhou City, China [67]. The shooting time was found to start in the first week of May, and the shooting period lasted for 16 days.

P. nigella grows new shoots in May, and is native to Zhejiang, China [50]. The shooting period of P. nigella was studied in Linan, China, with an annual average temperature of that region being 16.5 °C. The shooting period was from the 15th of April to the 9th of May in 2014, and the 16th of April to the 9th of May in 2015 [42]. The authors found that this species cumulative growth was greater at night than during the day.

The new shoots of P. nigra grow in late April. It is widely cultivated in China, and was introduced into India, Japan, Europe and the Americas [50]. The shoot emergence of P. nigra began from the 21st of April till the 17th of May at Anji County, Zhejiang Province in 1996. Annual average temperature was 15.5 °C [68]. Four cultivars of Phyllostachys nigra were examined for shooting at Zhejiang Agriculture and Forest University, China in 2009 with an average temperature of 15.8 °C [64]. They found that one cultivar called large diameter (LBH) began to shoot on the 5th of April (peak duration was from the 11th to the 17th of April). The other three cultivars started shooting on the 13th of April. The shooting periods of the four cultivars ranged from 20 to 30 days. Additionally, other researchers [69] evaluated the shooting and the height growth of P. nigra that were grown since 2006 at the International Bamboo and Rattan Center located in Taiping, Anhui Province, in China in 2011. With an annual average temperature of 15.4 °C, the shooting of this bamboo species started on the 23rd of April till the 10th of May in the tested area, and 91.9% of total shootings occurred during April, which means that the shooting time was very short, at about 18 days. When the shooting time increased, the retrograded shooting rate, which is correlated to the height of bamboo, also rose. The authors discussed that the height of bamboo growth was affected by the daily average temperature and daily average humidity. Their discussion was similar to the findings of [14] that the daily temperature fluctuation also influences the phenological changes of plants. The shooting period of P. nigra var. henonis was also observed in Jiangxi Province, China [70]. They found that the shooting period lasted 30–35 days, and its shooting time was from mid-late April to early May for three consecutive years. The annual average temperature was 17 °C during the study time.

The new shoots of P. nidularia grow in April to May, and is distributed in Shaanxi, Henan, and areas south of Changjiang river in China. It was introduced into Japan [50]. P. nidularia cv. smoothsheath was observed for shooting time under the average annual temperature of 15–16 °C at Ganxiping, Liulongshan, Southeast of Tongren City, China [71]. The shooting time of this species starts in the first and middle of May and ends in middle of June and late June with the total period of 30–35 days. Green and yellow forms of P. nidularia were studied in the area of Huanzhu Mountain in Huagai City, China, 1018–1080 m above sea level, in 1989. The annual average temperature was 11–16 °C [72]. In their observation, new bamboo culm shoots of the green form emerged in the middle of May and continued to sprout till the middle of June. The shooting period lasted 36 days in total. For the yellow culm form in Pingba, Nanchong City, it sprouted in the middle of May, and the shooting period was 35 days long. P. nidularia began to shoot in May and June in Nanliu, Longshan, Tongren, China [23].

P. nuda new shoots can be found from April to May, and the species is distributed in Shaanxi, Jiangsu, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, China and Hunan, and Taiwan [50]. The shooting period of P. nuda was also studied in Linan, China with an annual average temperature of that region being 16.5 °C during the studied period [42]. The shooting period of this species was from the 31st of March to the 18th of April in 2014 and the 31st of March to the 19th of April in 2015.

The new shoots of P. parvifolia grow in early May, and are distributed in Zhejiang and Anhui, in China [50]. P. parvifolia f. notata was observed to have its shooting time from the last week of April to last week of May at the banks of the middle and lower reaches of the Yongbu River, China from 1986 to 1989, with a recorded average annual temperature of 18–19 °C [58].

P. prominens grows its new shoots in May and is native to Zhejiang province in China [50]. The shooting period of P. prominens was studied in Linan, China, with 16.5 °C being the annual average temperature of the region [42]. The shooting period of this species was between the 9th and 24th April in 2014 and between the 12th and 27th April in 2015. The shooting time of this species was only during half of the month, 15 days for both studied years.

P. propinqua new shoots develop during April to May in China, and are distributed in Henan, Jiangsu, Anhui, Zhejiang, Hubei, Guizhou, and Guangxi. It was introduced to the USA [50]. April to May was the shooting period of P. propinqua in the Beijing Area, and the shoot growing period was accomplished within 45–50 days after emergence, where the annual average temperature was recorded to be 11.8 °C [73].

P. sulphurea shoots emerge in the middle of May, and the species grows along the Yellow River and Changjiang River, Fujian, in China [50]. The shooting period of P. sulphurea was studied in Linan, China, with the annual average temperature of the region recorded to be 16.5 °C [42]. The shooting period of this species was from the 6th of May to the 1st of June in 2014 and from the 8th of May to the 31st of May in 2015 [11,45].

The new shoots of P. viridiglaucescens grow in late April. The species is distributed in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi in China, and was introduced to France [50,74]. P. viridiglaucescens new culm shoots emerged at the end of April, and the culm sheaths fell from the middle of May to the end of June in Rome, in 2005 [17]. It also developed new leaves at the end of June, and it reached maximum expansion in the middle of July, while 65% of old leaves fell in May. At the observation site, the mean minimum air temperature of the coldest month (February) was 5.6 °C, and the mean maximum air temperature of the hottest months (July–August) was 31 °C. The dry period lasted from May to August, and the mean maximum air temperature was 29 °C.

P. violascens develops new shoots in May. It is native to Jiangsu, Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian and was introduced to Chongquing and Sichuan in China [50], while another source [74] determined the shooting period to be from March to April. This species is early in shooting and has high yields of new shoots for which it is widely grown in China. The shooting period of P. violascens was studied in Linan, China with an annual average temperature of 16.5 °C in that region. The shooting period of this specie was from the 4th of March to the 6th of April (34 days total) in 2014 and from the 8th of March to the 9th of April (33 days total) in 2015 [42]. The P. praecox f. notata (P. violescens f. notata) shooting time was observed to be from the 1st of March to the 30th of April at the banks of the middle and lower reaches of the Yongbu River from 1986 to 1989 with a recorded annual average temperature of 18–19 °C at the observation site [58]. The shooting period of P. praecox (P. violascens) started from the 1st week of March to the middle of April, while that of P. praecox f. prevernalis (P. violascens f. prevernalis) was found to be from the middle of March to the 1st week of April in a forest near Hangzhou in 1988 and 1989 [53].

The new shoot sprouting period of P. vivax was reported to be from the middle to late April in China [50], which is similar to other reports [74] of the shooting period being in April. The species is native in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, cultivated in Fujian, Henan, Shandong and was introduced to the USA [50]. P. vivax cv. aureocaulis was studied for the determination of its shooting law in Wangsu Province, China, in 2010 [75]. The average annual temperature of the site was between 14.4 and 15.1 °C. The shoots started sprouting from the 8th of May to the 12th of June, and the peak shooting period was found to be from the 23rd of May to the 3rd of June. P. vivax f. aureocaulis began to shoot from the 23rd of April to the 26th of May in Anji, Zhejiang Province, China in 2009 with an average annual temperature of 16.6 °C [76]. The shooting and height growth of P. vivax f. huanwenzhu was studied at Dayu Scenic Bamboo Garden in Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China in 2010 [77]. The average annual temperature of the observed site was 14.8 °C, and they found the shooting period of P. vivax f. huanwenzhu to be 90 days long from late March to late June, while the shoot survival rate was 94.38%. As for the result of the introduction experiment of P. vivax cv. huangwenzhu introduced from Quzhou into Lishui, Zhejiang province, China in 2013, it was found that shooting regularity was from the end of March to the end of June in 2013 [78].

A phenological and growth character description of Phyllostachys spp. in Sanming City, Fujian Province was carried out between 1998 and 2000 [79]. The author identified the shooting periods of 69 taxa with an annual temperature of 19.7 °C at the site. Some Phyllostachys species were also studied at Lingfenshi Forestry Station in Angji for 3 years, from 1976 to 1978 [26]. You can see a summary of the combined results of [26,50,79] on Phyllostachys spp. (

Table 2. Summary of shooting period of introduced Phyllostachys spp. in China [26,50,79]. * refers to [26], ** refers to [50].

Name of Taxa	Shooting Period According to [79]	Shooting Period According to [26] *, [50] **
P. acuta	20th of March–17th of April	April **
P. angusta	23rd of March–15th of April	1st to 2nd week of May *, late April **
P. arcana	12th of March–17th of April	late March to 2nd week of April *, April **
P. atrovaginata	9th of March–2nd of May	Late April to early May **
P. aureosulcata	12th of March–15th of April	Middle April to early May **
P. aureosulcata f. aureocaulis	12th of March–11th of April	-
P. aureosulcata f. pekinensis	20th of March–17th of April	-
P. aureosulcata f. spectabilis	12th of March–7th of April	-
P. aurita	12th of March–22nd of April	Middle to late April **
P. bambusoides	3rd of March–24th of May	Last week of April to 2nd week of May *, Late May **
P. bambusoides f. shouzhu	20th of March–17th of April	-
P. bissetii	12th of March–17th of April	Middle and late April **
P. circumpilis	1st of April–22nd of April	Middle and late April **
P. concava	15th of April–5th of May	-
P. dulcis	12th of March–11th of April	1st week to last week of April *, late April **
P. elegans	18th of March–15th of April	Middle April **
P. fimbriligula	11th of April–15th of April	May **
P. flexuosa	12th of March–22nd of April	Late April to early May **
P. glabrata	12th of March–17th of April	Middle and late April **
P. glabrata var. variabilis	20th of March–22nd of April	-
P. glauca	20th of March–17th of April	Late March to last week of April *, middle April to late May **
P. glauca f.	22nd of March–19th of April	-
P. glauca f. youzhu	20th of March–17th of April	-
P. heteroclada	13th of March–9th of April	May **
P. heteroclada f. solida	22nd of March–11th of April	1st to 2nd week of May *
P. incarnata	14th of March–19th of April	-
P. iridescens	14th of March–19th of April	1st week to 2nd week of April *, middle and late April **
P. kwangsiensis	20th of March–26th of April	April **
P. makinoi	10th of April–12th of May	Early May **
P. mannii	12th of March–17th of April	Early May **
P. meyeri	12th of March–15th of April	2nd week of April to 1st week of May *, late April **
P. nidularia	12th of March–17th of April	1st week to end of April *, April to May **
P. nidularia f. farcta	30th of March–22nd of April	-
P. nidularia f. smoothsheath	16th of March–13th of April	-
P. nigella	18th of March–24th of April	May **
P. nigra	12th of March–17th of April	Late April **
P. nigra var. henonis	12th of March–17th of April	Middle of April to 1st week of May *
P. nuda	14th of March–11th of April	1st week to 2nd week of April*, April to May **
P. parvifolia	17th of April–3rd of May	last week of April to 1st week of May *, early May **
P. platyglossa	12th of March–19th of April	Middle April **
P. praecox	14th of March–22nd of April	Late March to 1st week of April *, Not in the list **
P. prominens	14th of April–5th of May	May **
P. propinqua	2nd of March–9th of April	April to May **
P. propinqua cv	7th of March–11th of April	-
P. heterocycla var. pubescens (P. edulis)	15th of March–20th of April	-
P. heterocycla (P. edulis) cv.	26th of March–5th of April	-
P. heterocycla (P. edulis) f. gracilis	16th of March–17th of April	-
P. heterocycla (P. edulis) f. luteosulcata	12th of March–17th of April	-
P. heterocycla (P. edulis) f. obiguinoda	29th of March–5th of April	-
P. heterocycla (P. edulis)	10th of April–5th of May	-
P. robustiramea	20th of March–19th of April	Middle and late April **
P. rubella	30th of March–26th of April	-
P. rubella	12th of March–5th of May	-
P. rubicunda	18th of April–7th of May	Middle and late May **
P. rubromarginata	15th of April–6th of May	-
P. stimaulosa	20th of March–25th of April	-
P. stimulosa	23rd of April–30th of May	Early May **
P. tianmuensis	10th–30th of March	Late March to late April **
P. nuda	12th of March–17th of April	-
P. viridiglaucescens	5th of April–5th of May	Late April **
P. viridis	25th of April–17th of May	1st week to last week of May *, not in the list **
P. viridis f. houzeauana	21st of April–3rd of May	-
P. viridis f. youngii	24th of April–14th of May	-
P. vivax	5th–11th of April	Middle to late April **
P. vivax f.	20th of March–10th of April	-
P. vivax f. aureocaulis	26th of March–19th of April	-
P. vivax f. huanwenzhu	4th of April–28th of April	-
P. pubescens (P. edulis)	-	Late March to 2nd week of April *
P. nuda f. localis	-	1st week of April to 1st week of May *

).

2.2.8. Pleioblastus

This genus is described in the book of Illustrated Flora of Bambusoideae in China. with the shooting period mentioned as being between May and June. There are more than 50 species in China, Vietnam, Korea and Japan, with 6 forms and 5 varieties, from which 35 species are native to China alone [41]. The only other source mentioning phenological development is [80], which described the first leaf expansion of Pleioblastus pygmaeus on the 11th day after seed sowing (20th of May, 2015), and tiller formation (2 cm) was found about three months after sowing with the rhizome formation (2.5 cm) in about 6 months after sowing. Bamboo rhizome’s growth and differentiation were fully developed at one and a half years of age. The study site was at Nanjing Forestry University, China, with an annual average temperature of 15.4 °C in that region.

2.3. Phenological Studies in Subtropical/Tropical Bamboos

2.3.1. Bambusa

The Bambusa genus is comprised of 100 species, which are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical areas of Asia and Africa. In total, 73 species, 14 varieties, 14 forms, and 3 hybrids occur in the south and southwest of China. Some species were introduced into other parts of the world, including Asia and America. The new shoot emergence can be found in summer and autumn. B. pervariabilis produces new shoots from June to July, while B. textilis var. gracilis grows its new culm shoots from the middle of June to early October with July as the peak, and the shooting period lasts a total of 110 days. The specific date of new shoot emergence for B. albo-lineata, B. chungii, B. subaequalis P. tulda, and B. ventricosa was not mentioned by [50].

B. albo-lineata was studied at the Botanical Garden in Xiamen, Fujian Province, China in 1999. The average temperature during the study period was 21.2 °C. The B. albo-lineata shooting period was from late July to 1st of October, a total of 85–90 days.

B. chungii was also studied at the Botanical Garden in Xiamen, Fujian Province in 1999 [81]. The average temperature during the study period was 21.2 °C. B. chungii shooting period was from early July to the 10th of October (85–110 days).

The growth of B. intermedia was studied from May to December 2017 in Fumin, Shuangjiang and Mile villages, China [44], where the annual average temperature was 15.8 °C. B. intermedia grew new sprouts from the 16th of May, and the growth finished by the 15th of October. The highest shooting period was observed between June and August, with the shooting period lasting a total of 149 days.

The B. oldhami shooting period was determined to be from the first week of June to the last week of October at the banks of the middle and lower reaches of the Yongbu River, China from 1986 to 1989. The average annual temperature in the region was 18–19 °C [58].

B. pervariabilis was studied at the Botanical Garden in Xiamen, Fujian Province, China, in 1999. The average temperature during the study period was 21.2 °C. The shooting period of B. pervariabilis was during early July to the first 10 days of October. The authors observed the duration of the shooting time to be about 90–105 days in total. B. pervariabilis sprouted new shoots from July to October in 1999 [81], while another source mentioned that it shoots from June to July [50]. The growth of B. pervariabilis × Dendrocalamopsis daii hybrid bamboo was studied from May to December 2017 in Fumin, Shuangjiang and Mile villages, China [44] with an annual average temperature of 15.8 °C. B. pervariabilis × D. daii appeared to sprout from the 10th of June, and growth ceased by the 26th of September. The fastest shoot growing period was observed between June and August. B. pervariabilis × D. daii had a 106-day-long shooting period.

B. subaequalis was studied at the Botanical Garden in Xiamen, Fujian Province, China, in 1999. The average temperature during the studied period was 21.2 °C. The shooting period of B. subaequalis was from early July to 1st of October, and the duration was about 90–102 days in total. B. tulda was also observed for the shoot phenology. The shooting time of B. tulda was found to be from late July to the 10th of November, a total of 90–120 days.

B. textilis was also found to have its shooting period from early July to the 1st of October with the total days of sprouting ranging from 90 to 105 days [81]. B. textilis var. gracilis was also reported in the same study, and its shooting period was reported to be from early July to early October. The shooting period was 80–115 days in total, while the shooting time of B. textilis var. gracilis was described to be from the middle of June to early October [50].

The shooting time of B. variostriata was observed to be from the last week of May to the last week of November under an average temperature of 18–19 °C at the banks of the middle and lower reaches of the Yongbu River, China from 1986 to 1989 [58].

The phenology of new culm growth, shedding of the culm sheaths, leafing and maximum leaf fall) of bamboo species, including B. ventricosa, was studied from January to December 2005 in Rome, Italy [17]. The mean minimum air temperature of the coldest month (February) was 5.6 °C, and the mean maximum air temperature of the hottest months (July–August) was 31 °C. The dry period lasted from May to August (the mean maximum air temperature was 29 °C). B. ventricosa new culms grew at the beginning of September and the sheath fell from the beginning of December to the end of February. B. ventricosa had its new leaf development in the middle of May, and the maximum expansion occurred at the end of September, while about 50% of old leaves dropped from December to the end of February. The growth of B. ventricosa was studied from May to December, 2017, in Fumin, Shuangjiang and Mile villages, China [44] with an annual average temperature of 15.8 °C. B. ventricosa started to sprout during the 5th of May to the 30th of October, and the fastest shoot growing period of this species was observed between June and August, while the shooting period lasted 175 days. B. ventricosa began to emerge new shoots at the beginning of September in 2005 in Rome, while it started to sprout at the beginning of May 2017 in China. This big difference in shooting time can be explained by the difference in climatic conditions (warm temperate to subtropical at the locations).

2.3.2. Dendrocalamus

Dendrocalamus genus includes approximately 46 species in tropical and subtropical Asia. In total, 38 species, 3 varieties, and 8 forms and 1 hybrid are native in South and Southwest China, especially in Yunnan Province. These species have new shoots in late summer to early autumn. Flowering can also be found in late spring and summer [50].

D. asper, D. brandisii and D. stenoaurita were grown at Fujian Huaian Bamboo Seed Garden, China in 2014 and were observed for their shooting time [82]. The average annual temperature at the site was 18 °C. D. asper shoot emergence was from late June to September. D. brandisii was found to have a shooting time from the end of May to the end of October, while D. stenoaurita grew new shoots from late July to early October, respectively.

D. farinosus can be found in Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi provinces of China, at low elevations of riversides, plains, hills, shallow mountain area, near houses, especially in limestone areas. New shoots of this species can be found in September [50]. The height growth rhythm from shoot to young bamboo culm of D. farinosus and its aboveground biomass were observed in Yunnan Province in 2006 [83]. The observation area had an annual maximum temperature of 38 °C. The shooting time was observed from the 7th of July, and the shooting period lasted 73 days, while the height growth from shoot to young bamboo culm was complete in about 104 days. The stem diameter was accomplished in about 42 days. However, the growth rhythm was not significantly different between day and night. According to their regression analysis, they pointed out that soil moisture content was the limiting factor during the growth process.

The shooting of D. hamiltonii was studied in Menglun, Banna Tianzhu, China [84]. The shooting time of this species was from July to October, and it lasted about 100 days. The shooting process could be divided into 3 stages, an initial phase (before 27 July), an abundant phase (28 July–15 September) with a 66.7% of total shoots and 60.4% of total height growth, plus a final phase (after 16 September). The growth of shoots of D. latiflorus was studied at the Botanical Garden in Xiamen, Fujian Province, China in 1999 [81]. The average temperature during the studied period was 21.2 °C. D. latiflorus shoots emerged from late June to the middle of October. The shooting period of D. latiflorus was also studied at different geographical provenances, Zhangzhou and Yongan in Fujiang Province, China from May to November in 2002. The plants in Zhangzhou from central Fujiang were found to have a sprouting period from the last week of June to the middle of October. The plants at Yongan from North Fujiang started sprouting at the beginning of June and ended during the last week of September. In comparison with the growth of new shoots between the two different areas, the new shoots in Zhangzhou area had more adaptability, sprouting more evenly during a longer period, with a higher survival rate than those in Yongan [85].

2.3.3. Dendrocalamopsis

Dendrocalamopsis genus is comprised of 11 species total, 10 species, 1 variety and 3 forms native to East and South China, 1 species in Myanmar. Their new shoots develop in autumn. In D. beecheyana, new shoots were reported from June to July [50].

The growth of D. basihirsuta and D. beecheyana was observed at the Botanical Garden in Xiamen, Fujian Province, China in 1999 [81]. The average annual temperature in that area was 21.2 °C. Both species had their shooting period begin in July. D. basihirsuta started shooting in early July and finished shooting on the 1st of September, while D. beecheyana had its shooting time from the middle of July and ceased on the 1st of October.

2.3.4. Neosinocalamus

There are 2 species and 5 varieties in the Neosinocalamus genus, which are found in the Sichuan Basin, South Gansu and Shaanxi, West Hubei and Hunan, Guizhou, and Yunnan provinces in China. They can be found in plains, riversides of hills, bases of mountains, near villages below 1200 m (up to 1800 m in Yunnan) altitude. Moreover, they are widely cultivated in Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangdong, Henan, China. New shoots emerge from April to July [50].

The shooting period of N. affinis was examined from May to December 2017 in Fumin, Shuangjiang and Mile villages, Yunnan Province in China [44]. The average annual temperature for each location was determined to be 15.8 °C, 19.6 °C, and 17.6 °C respectively. N. affinis, which was found in the southwest, was observed to have its first sprouting day on 26th of May with a total shooting period of 94 days, and the peak shooting period fell between June and August. Sympodial bamboo N. affinis was observed for phenology in a cultivated bamboo garden of Southwest Forestry University in Yunnan Province, China, from March 2016 to January 2017 [48]. The average monthly temperature recorded in the tested area was 20 °C for July. Their result showed that the shooting period started in July and branching started simultaneously on the 1-year culms from May to July.

3. Conclusions

Under seasonal climates, the monitoring of the changes of plant phenology is an important tool in the study of the effects of periodic changes in weather patterns on climate change. Nowadays, global changing phenomena are impacting the growing patterns, and growing period of plants. Although some bamboo species can thrive under a wide range of climatic conditions, some species respond to different locations, altitudes and temperatures by phenological changes. This was reported in the case of several bamboo species growing at different locations. However, since it is not known how bamboo will be affected by climate change, research related to bamboo phenology is a vitally important tool in the monitoring of these environmental changes. This review article focuses on phenological data reported for over 79 temperate with species emphasis on the genus Phyllostachys and over 19 subtropical–tropical bamboo species, varieties and forms alike, to provide reference data for future phenological analysis. However, most of the covered literature is based on single-year observations, and there is limited information on longer-term changes and environmental factors affecting bamboo phenology and this stresses the need for future longer-term research in the field.