Application of a Photocatalyst as an Inactivator of Bovine Coronavirus
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Virus and Cell Culture
2.2. Film Adhesion of Photocatalytic Material and Test Equipment
2.3. Assessment of Antiviral Activity of Photocatalytic Material with Visible Light Irradiation
2.4. Determination of TCID50 of Virus Suspensions on Test Films after 4 h with or without Visible Light Irradiation
2.5. Criteria for Assessment of Antiviral Activity of Photocatalyst and Effect of Visible Light Irradiation
2.6. Immunofluorescence Assay
3. Results
3.1. Determination of TCID50 of Virus Suspensions on Test Films after 4 h with or without Visible Light Irradiation
3.2. Immunofluorescence Assay
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Fehr, A.R.; Perlman, S. Coronaviruses: An overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Coronaviruses Methods Protoc. 2015, 1282, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Woo, P.C.Y.; Huang, Y.; Lau, S.K.P.; Yuen, K.Y. Coronavirus genomics and bioinformatics analysis. Viruses 2010, 2, 1805–1820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Woo, P.C.Y.; Lau, S.K.P.; Lam, C.S.F.; Lau, C.C.Y.; Tsang, A.K.L.; Lau, J.H.N.; Bai, R.; Teng, J.L.L.; Tsang, C.C.C.; Wang, M.; et al. Discovery of Seven Novel Mammalian and Avian Coronaviruses in the Genus Deltacoronavirus Supports Bat Coronaviruses as the Gene Source of Alphacoronavirus and Betacoronavirus and Avian Coronaviruses as the Gene Source of Gammacoronavirus and Deltacoronavirus. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 3995–4008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cui, J.; Li, F.; Shi, Z.L. Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2019, 17, 181–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Drexler, J.F.; Gloza-Rausch, F.; Glende, J.; Corman, V.M.; Muth, D.; Goettsche, M.; Seebens, A.; Niedrig, M.; Pfefferle, S.; Yordanov, S.; et al. Genomic Characterization of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus in European Bats and Classification of Coronaviruses Based on Partial RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase Gene Sequences. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 11336–11349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lu, R.; Zhao, X.; Li, J.; Niu, P.; Yang, B.; Wu, H.; Wang, W.; Song, H.; Huang, B.; Zhu, N.; et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: Implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet 2020, 395, 565–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chen, Y.; Liu, Q.; Guo, D. Emerging coronaviruses: Genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis. J. Med. Virol. 2020, 92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adeel Hassan, S.; Sheikh, F.N.; Jamal, S.; Ezeh, J.K.; Akhtar, A. Coronavirus (COVID-19): A Review of Clinical Features, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Cureus 2020, 12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Forni, D.; Cagliani, R.; Clerici, M.; Sironi, M. Molecular Evolution of Human Coronavirus Genomes. Trends Microbiol. 2017, 25, 35–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Su, S.; Wong, G.; Shi, W.; Liu, J.; Lai, A.C.K.; Zhou, J.; Liu, W.; Bi, Y.; Gao, G.F. Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol. 2016, 24, 490–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fung, T.S.; Liu, D.X. Human coronavirus: Host-pathogen interaction. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2019, 73, 529–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vijgen, L.; Keyaerts, E.; Moës, E.; Thoelen, I.; Wollants, E.; Lemey, P.; Vandamme, A.-M.; Van Ranst, M. Complete Genomic Sequence of Human Coronavirus OC43: Molecular Clock Analysis Suggests a Relatively Recent Zoonotic Coronavirus Transmission Event. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 1595–1604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Alekseev, K.P.; Vlasova, A.N.; Jung, K.; Hasoksuz, M.; Zhang, X.; Halpin, R.; Wang, S.; Ghedin, E.; Spiro, D.; Saif, L.J. Bovine-Like Coronaviruses Isolated from Four Species of Captive Wild Ruminants Are Homologous to Bovine Coronaviruses, Based on Complete Genomic Sequences. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 12422–12431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Decaro, N.; Martella, V.; Elia, G.; Campolo, M.; Mari, V.; Desario, C.; Lucente, M.S.; Lorusso, A.; Greco, G.; Corrente, M.; et al. Biological and genetic analysis of a bovine-like coronavirus isolated from water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) calves. Virology 2008, 370, 213–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hasoksuz, M.; Alekseev, K.; Vlasova, A.; Zhang, X.; Spiro, D.; Halpin, R.; Wang, S.; Ghedin, E.; Saif, L.J. Biologic, Antigenic, and Full-Length Genomic Characterization of a Bovine-Like Coronavirus Isolated from a Giraffe. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 4981–4990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zhang, X.M.; Herbst, W.; Kousoulas, K.G.; Storz, J. Biological and genetic characterization of a hemagglutinating coronavirus isolated from a diarrhoeic child. J. Med. Virol. 1994, 44, 152–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Suzuki, T.; Otake, Y.; Uchimoto, S.; Hasebe, A.; Goto, Y. Genomic characterization and phylogenetic classification of bovine coronaviruses through whole genome sequence analysis. Viruses 2020, 12, 183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mawatari, T.; Hirano, K.; Ikeda, H.; Tsunemitsu, H.; Suzuki, T. Surveillance of diarrhea-causing pathogens in dairy and beef cows in Yamagata Prefecture, Japan from 2002 to 2011. Microbiol. Immunol. 2014, 58, 530–535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goto, Y.; Yaegashi, G.; Fukunari, K.; Suzuki, T. Design of a multiplex quantitative reverse transcription-PCR system to simultaneously detect 16 pathogens associated with bovine respiratory and enteric diseases. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghinai, I.; McPherson, T.D.; Hunter, J.C.; Kirking, H.L.; Christiansen, D.; Joshi, K.; Rubin, R.; Morales-Estrada, S.; Black, S.R.; Pacilli, M.; et al. First known person-to-person transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the USA. Lancet 2020, 395, 1137–1144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yuen, K.-S.; Ye, Z.-W.; Fung, S.-Y.; Chan, C.-P.; Jin, D.-Y. SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: The most important research questions. Cell Biosci. 2020, 10, 40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kampf, G.; Todt, D.; Pfaender, S.; Steinmann, E. Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents. J. Hosp. Infect. 2020, 104, 246–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Han, Q.; Lin, Q.; Ni, Z.; You, L. Uncertainties about the transmission routes of 2019 novel coronavirus. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 2020, 14, 470–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Han, Y.; Yang, H. The transmission and diagnosis of 2019 novel coronavirus infection disease (COVID-19): A Chinese perspective. J. Med. Virol. 2020, 92, 639–644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Yeo, C.; Kaushal, S.; Yeo, D. Enteric involvement of coronaviruses: Is faecal–oral transmission of SARS-CoV-2 possible? Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2020, 5, 335–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pillaiyar, T.; Meenakshisundaram, S.; Manickam, M. Recent discovery and development of inhibitors targeting coronaviruses. Drug Discov. Today 2020, 25, 668–688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Malik, Y.S.; Sircar, S.; Bhat, S.; Sharun, K.; Dhama, K.; Dadar, M.; Tiwari, R.; Chaicumpa, W. Veterinary Quarterly Emerging novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)-current scenario, evolutionary perspective based on genome analysis and recent developments Emerging novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)-current scenario, evolutionary perspective based on genome analysis and recent developments. Vet. Q. 2020, 40, 68–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, H.; Zhou, Y.; Zhang, M.; Wang, H.; Zhao, Q.; Liu, J. Updated Approaches against SARS-CoV-2. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2020, 64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ren, J.L.; Zhang, A.H.; Wang, X.J. Traditional Chinese medicine for COVID-19 treatment. Pharmacol. Res. 2020, 155, 104743. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Qu, S.; Xu, L. Progress in the study of virus detection methods: The possibility of alternative methods to validate virus inactivation. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2019, 116, 2095–2102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dellanno, C.; Vega, Q.; Boesenberg, D.; Montclair, U.; Jersey, N. The antiviral action of common household disinfectants and antiseptics against murine hepatitis virus, a potential surrogate for SARS coronavirus. Am. J. Infect. Control 2009, 37, 649–652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kumar, M.; Mazur, S.; Ork, B.L.; Postnikova, E.; Hensley, L.E.; Jahrling, P.B.; Johnson, R.; Holbrook, M.R. Inactivation and safety testing of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus. J. Virol. Methods 2015, 223, 13–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Takehara, K.; Yamazaki, K.; Miyazaki, M.; Yamada, Y.; Ruenphet, S.; Jahangir, A.; Shoham, D.; Okamura, M.; Nakamura, M. Inactivation of avian influenza virus H1N1 by photocatalyst under visible light irradiation. Virus Res. 2010, 151, 102–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Choi, S.Y.; Cho, B. Extermination of influenza virus H1N1 by a new visible-light-induced photocatalyst under fluorescent light. Virus Res. 2018, 248, 71–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Habibi-Yangjeh, A.; Asadzadeh-Khaneghah, S.; Feizpoor, S.; Rouhi, A. Review on heterogeneous photocatalytic disinfection of waterborne, airborne, and foodborne viruses: Can we win against pathogenic viruses? J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2020, 580, 503–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kanno, T.; Hatama, S.; Ishihara, R.; Uchida, I. Molecular analysis of the S glycoprotein gene of bovine coronaviruses isolated in Japan from 1999 to 2006. J. Gen. Virol. 2007, 88, 1218–1224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Reed, L.J.; Muench, H. A Simple Method of Estimating Fifty Percent Endpoints. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1938, 27, 493–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 18071:2016 Fine Ceramics (Advanced Ceramics, Advanced Technical Ceramics)—Determination of Antiviral Activity of Semiconducting Photocatalytic Materials under Indoor Lighting Environment—Test Method Using Bacteriophage Q-Beta; International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Performance Standard (Photocatalysis Industry Association of Japan). Available online: https://www.piaj.gr.jp/roller/en/entry/20090121 (accessed on 14 October 2020).
- Zhang, C.; Zhang, M.; Li, Y.; Shuai, D. Visible-light-driven photocatalytic disinfection of human adenovirus by a novel heterostructure of oxygen-doped graphitic carbon nitride and hydrothermal carbonation carbon. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2019, 248, 11–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neppolian, B.; Choi, H.C.; Sakthivel, S.; Arabindoo, B.; Murugesan, V. Solar light induced and TiO2 assisted degradation of textile dye reactive blue 4. Chemosphere 2002, 46, 1173–1181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 8995:2002 Lighting of Indoor Work Places; International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Pichat, P. Some views about indoor air photocatalytic treatment using TiO2: Conceptualization of humidity effects; active oxygen species; problem of C1–C3 carbonyl pollutants. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2010, 99, 428–434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Time of Irradiation (h) | Illuminance Values of Visible Light Irradiation (lux) | Virus Titers after Visible Light Irradiation a | Antiviral Activity Values c | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Uncoated b | Coated b | VL | VD | ΔV | ||
0 | 0 | 5.2 (±0.1) | N.T. | |||
4 | 0 | 4.5 (±0.2) | 2.3 (±0.2) | 2.2 | 0.5 | |
4 | 500 | 4.6 (±0.3) | 1.9 (±0.4) | 2.7 | ||
0 | 0 | 4.3 (±0.0) | N.T. | |||
4 | 0 | 4.7 (±0.2) | 2.7 (±0.2) | 2.0 | 0.8 | |
4 | 1000 | 4.4 (±0.3) | 1.6 (±0.1) | 2.8 | ||
0 | 0 | 4.2 (±0.2) | N.T. | |||
4 | 0 | 4.2 (±0.1) | 2.4 (±0.2) | 1.8 | 0.6 | |
4 | 3000 | 3.6 (±0.2) | 1.2 (±0.5) | 2.4 |
Time of Irradiation (h) | Illuminance Values of Visible Light Irradiation (lux) | Virus Titers after Visible Light Irradiation a | Antiviral Activity Values c | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Uncoated b | Coated b | VL | VD | ΔV | ||
0 | 0 | 4.7 (±0.2) | N.T. | |||
1 | 0 | 4.7 (±0.2) | 4.0 (±0.3) | 0.7 | 0.2 | |
2 | 0 | 4.7 (±0.0) | 3.6 (±0.9) | 1.1 | 0.6 | |
3 | 0 | 4.5 (±0.2) | 3.3 (±0.2) | 1.2 | 0.8 | |
4 | 0 | 4.6 (±0.4) | 3.1 (±0.4) | 1.5 | 0.7 | |
0 | 0 | N.T. | N.T. | |||
1 | 1000 | 4.5 (±0.0) | 3.6 (±0.3) | 0.9 | ||
2 | 1000 | 4.9 (±0.2) | 3.2 (±0.4) | 1.7 | ||
3 | 1000 | 4.4 (±0.3) | 2.4 (±0.2) | 2.0 | ||
4 | 1000 | 4.5 (±0.2) | 2.3 (±0.6) | 2.2 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Yoshizawa, N.; Ishihara, R.; Omiya, D.; Ishitsuka, M.; Hirano, S.; Suzuki, T. Application of a Photocatalyst as an Inactivator of Bovine Coronavirus. Viruses 2020, 12, 1372. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12121372
Yoshizawa N, Ishihara R, Omiya D, Ishitsuka M, Hirano S, Suzuki T. Application of a Photocatalyst as an Inactivator of Bovine Coronavirus. Viruses. 2020; 12(12):1372. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12121372
Chicago/Turabian StyleYoshizawa, Nobuki, Ryoko Ishihara, Daisuke Omiya, Midori Ishitsuka, Shouichirou Hirano, and Tohru Suzuki. 2020. "Application of a Photocatalyst as an Inactivator of Bovine Coronavirus" Viruses 12, no. 12: 1372. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12121372