1. Introduction
Polymers became an indispensable part of modern society, revolutionizing, simplifying, and improving the way of living and being. They combine low price and weight with high versatility of applications and processability, thus, becoming preferred materials for plastic food and non-food packaging, enabling better and safer conditioning of goods and, subsequently, reducing waste [
1,
2,
3]. However, despite a steady increase in post-consumer plastic collection over recent years, only a third of this amount is effectively recycled, and the remainder is used either for energy recovery or disposed of in landfills [
4]. Such a low rate of recycling may be explained by a quality issue inherent to post-consumer recycled plastics, which mainly originated from two sources: contamination either by immiscible polymer inclusions, by primary use, and by waste collection methods [
5,
6,
7,
8], and thermo-oxidative degradation occurring during synthesis, transformation, service life as a product, and reprocessing after recycling [
9]. Thermo and photo-oxidative degradation is known to be a significant factor in the deterioration of recycled PP properties due to the mechanisms of molecular scission and the formation of oxidized moieties [
10,
11,
12]. Determination of the degradation degree is essential to understanding recycled plastic products’ future performance. A decrease in the melting temperature of photodegraded PP was linked to progressively lower molecular weight, lower rates of nucleation in the crystalline structures, and a larger number of chemical irregularities in the form of carbonyl groups [
13,
14,
15]. An increase in the degradation level of PP due to intensified molecular scission and, therefore, shorter molecular chains, which promote increased mobility at a molecular level, is reflected as a rise in the crystallization temperature [
15,
16]. Higher crystallization temperatures were associated with a greater number of crystalline particles with the γ form developed during the crystallization of molecules with low molecular weight due to degradation through molecular scission [
17].
Alteration of crystallinity degree is another degradation signature of widely researched polymers. The decrease in PP crystallinity, according to Ojeda et al. [
12], was attributed to the increased concentration of chemical impurities (i.e., carbonyl and hyperoxide groups) due to antioxidant consumption in PP. However, Rabello and White [
13] show that the crystallization degree of PP may vary either way, increasing after short-term exposure to photo-oxidative degradation and then decreasing after prolonged exposure. Short-term exposure to light and oxygen reduces the molecular mass and increases polarity, leading to greater polymer chain mobility and promoting reorganization into more orderly structures. However, with more prolonged exposure, the crystallinity degree becomes limited due to chemical irregularities like carbonyl and hydroperoxides due to continuous photooxidation. Similar results are reported by Wu et al. [
14] and Elvira et al. [
16] that associate the decrease of crystallinity with the increase of carbonyl groups that form during the oxidation of PP. It should be stressed that one of the most notorious effects of PP degradation is a deterioration of the mechanical properties. The oxidative degradation in semicrystalline plastics, in general, and in PP, in particular, initiates in the crystalline interphase and advances through the amorphous regions. Therefore, when these tie molecules linking polymer crystallites undergo scission, their bearing capacity to withstand the applied stress is significantly diminished, leading to rapid embrittlement even at low oxidation levels [
18,
19]. These observations were supported by various authors [
10,
12,
20,
21], who reported a decrease in the mechanical properties of recycled polyolefins, especially the abrupt reduction in the elongation at break.
Along with the assessment of recycled post-consumer plastics degradation state, significant efforts were dedicated to the investigation of the influence of contaminants removal by washing on their properties [
7,
10,
22,
23,
24,
25,
26,
27]. Most of these studies were focused on odor removal by different washing processes, which is a well-known problem of post-consumer plastic originating from food and nonfood packaging caused when organic compounds adhere to the surface and are embedded into the polymer matrix [
22,
23,
24]. Inks, partially consumed additives, and possible degradation products were identified as origins of odor [
22]. The applied washing methods have proven to be effective in partially removing odor contaminants, as demonstrated by Demets et al. [
23], where a reduction of odor constituents in contaminated plastic films (rinsed and washed in a friction washer) was detected. However, after extrusion and pelletizing, these contaminants’ content increased due to their release during melting and thermal degradation, being, nevertheless, lower than in unwashed plastic waste. Strangl et al. [
28] reached a similar conclusion for extruded and pelletized post-consumer mixed packaging polyolefins. The presence of dirt in copolymer PP requires lower activation energy for 10% thermogravimetric weight loss compared with uncontaminated plastic, confirming the accelerating effect of degradation due to contaminants [
29]. This conclusion was corroborated in the recent study of Veroneze et al. for artificially contaminated PP. They have reported that the residual contaminants decrease the molar mass and exacerbate the degradation reaction [
27]. However, in the studies mentioned above, the impact of recyclates’ purity on the mechanical properties of post-consumer recycled plastics was not investigated. Very few studies systematically tackle this important topic. Garofalo et al. [
7] reported an improvement in the flexural modulus of post-consumer polyethylene (PE) contaminated with PP due to the removal of low molecular compounds, especially evident when hot-water washing with caustic soda was implemented.
Despite the considerable amount of research dedicated to the post-consumer degradation of PP, it is still essential to carry out structured research mainly focused on evaluating the influence of superficially adhered contaminants responsible for its post-consumer degradation. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the impact of the contamination of PP, recovered from post-consumer plastic packaging waste, on its degradation by assessing the rheological, thermal properties and mechanical performance. To this end, three different washing procedures were implemented, resulting in four batches of recycled plastics with different degrees of contamination. These four batches and the reference virgin PP were investigated with FTIR, MFI, and DSC and tested for tensile strength to identify the influence of contamination on post-consumer PP degradation. The present work’s main contributions were identifying the most efficient washing method for the contaminants’ removal and clarifying the potential contribution of the contaminants to the degradation of the reprocessed post-consumer PP.
4. Conclusions
Post-consumer PP waste contamination, heterogeneity, and degradation can complicate reprocessing and the quality of recycled components. Melt flow index measurements unambiguously pointed out the heterogeneity of the recycled PP composition and their constituent materials’ origin (packaging), with MFI varying between 32 to 42 g/10 min, falling within the range of the medium and low viscosity grades. The melt flow index standard deviation was significantly minimized in all washed samples, varying between 1.49 and 4.42 g/10 min, compared with the standard deviation of 13.04 g/10 min of rPPu, indicating an improvement in their processability. Thermal characterization by DSC revealed that the recycled PP, independently of the washing method, required less energy to melt but crystallized under higher temperatures. Both occurrences can be attributed to the degradation processes by accumulating chemical impurities in the form of carbonyl groups resulting from the oxidative processes and reduction of molecular mass due to polymer chain scission. The latter is likely responsible for the lower crystalline content (47–49%) of recycled PP compared with virgin PP (53%). OIT tests demonstrated that for all the recycled PP samples, significantly less time was required to induce oxidation than in the reference vPP sample, indicating some depletion of the initially present antioxidants that protected the polymeric chains from the oxidation processes by preventing their scission. The weakened molecular structure resulted in the drastic reduction of ductility in all samples of recycled PP and, therefore, a significant decrease in the elongation at break (15–21%) compared with virgin PP (191%).
Nevertheless, it should be stressed that a slight ductility improvement was observed in the samples decontaminated by washing. The significance of this observation was confirmed by the FTIR spectroscopy data, where the wave intensity peak at 1730 cm−1, assigned to the saturated C = 0 stretch of the carbonyl functional group, was detected in rPPu. The intensity of this peak decreased drastically in rPPcw and disappeared in the rPPhw and rPPhwca, highlighting the efficiency of washing for attenuation of the thermo-oxidative degradation intensity. These results demonstrate that contaminants act as degradation catalysts, and their removal improves the processability and mechanical properties. It can be concluded that the most promising washing procedure for improving the recycled PP quality is cold washing (rPPcw), as it showed very similar results to rPPhw and rPPhwca methods, with the advantages of energy savings and environmental safety.