High-Temperature Chloride-Carbonate Phase Change Material: Thermal Performances and Modelling of a Packed Bed Storage System for Concentrating Solar Power Plants
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Suitable phase change temperature;
- Large phase change enthalpy (at least 50 kJ/kg);
- Complete reversibility and good cycling stability avoiding phases separation;
- Little sub-cooling to assure that melting and solidification can proceed to a narrow temperature range;
- Good thermal conductivity;
- Low vapour pressure;
- Small volume change;
- Chemical stability;
- Compatibility with the vessel and the surrounding materials;
- Safe, non-toxic and non-flammable species;
- High availability of materials at acceptable cost;
- Positive life cycle assessment (LCA).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Preparation
2.2. Experimental Measurements
2.3. Modelling Numerical Method and Governing Equations
- Tank walls are adiabatic and heat losses are neglected;
- PCM and HTF temperatures change only along the direction in which the HTF flows;
- Averaged thermo-physical properties of PCM and HTF are assumed as constant and independent of the temperature variation.
3. Results
3.1. Experimental Results
3.2. Simulation Results
3.3. Cost Analysis
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Glossary
Nomenclature | Units | |
Density | ||
Specific heat | ||
Thermal conductivity | ||
Void fraction of packed bed | ||
Velocity | ||
Convective coefficient of heat transfer | ||
Convectivity factor | (1/m) | |
Temperature | T | K |
Time | t | s |
Enthalpy | H | |
Dynamic viscosity | Pa s | |
Cross section area of the cylindrical tank | ||
Reciprocal of thermal exchange coefficient | ||
Thickness | s | (m) |
Mass flow rate | (kg/s) | |
Radius of capsule | r | (m) |
Radius of tank | R | |
Dynamic viscosity | Pa* s |
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Salt Type | % wt/wt | Melting Temperature (°C) | Latent Heat (kJ/kg) | Salt Type | % wt/wt | Melting Temperature (°C) | Latent Heat (kJ/kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AgBr | pure | 432 | 48.8 | NaBr/MgBr2 | 45/55 | 431 | 212 |
LiOH | pure | 462 | 873 | KCl/ZnCl2 | 54/46 | 432 | 218 |
PbCl2 | pure | 501 | 78.7 | NaCl/MgCl2 | 48/52 | 450 | 431 |
LiBr | pure | 550 | 203 | NaCl/CaCl2/MgCl2/KCl | 47.4/41.6/8.8/2.2 ** | 460 | 245 |
Ca(NO3)2 | pure | 560 | 145 | KCl/NaCl/MgCl2/BaCl2 | 52.3/20.7/18.2/8.7 ** | 475 | 248 |
Ba(NO3)2 | pure | 594 | 209 | KCl/NaCl/CaCl2/BaCl2 | 47.3/22.7/16.9/13.1 ** | 478 | 208 |
Sr(NO3)2 | pure | 608 | 221 | KCl/NaCl/CaCl2/BaCl2 | 42.7/25.8/22.2/9.3 | 479 | 217 |
LiCl | pure | 610 | 441 | Li2CO3/K2CO3 | 47/53 | 488 | 342 |
CsBr | pure | 638 | 105 | Na2CO3/Li2CO3 | 56/44 | 496 | 370 |
CsCl2 | pure | 645 | 121 | Na2CO3/Li2CO3 | 72/28 | 498 | 263 |
FeCl2 | pure | 677 | 338 | NaCl/CaCl2 | 33/67 | 500 | 281 |
RbBr | pure | 692 | 141 | CaCl2/NaCl/KCl | 66/29/5 | 504 | 279 |
CsF | pure | 693 | 143 | BaCl2/KCl/NaCl | 53/28/19 | 542 | 221 |
MgBr2 | pure | 711 | 214 | LiCl/MgF2 | 94.5/5.5 ** | 573 | 131 |
MgCl2 | pure | 714 | 454 | KF/KCl | 55/45 ** | 605 | 407 |
RbCl | pure | 719 | 198 | NaCl/Na2MoO4/NaBr | 38.5/38.5/23 ** | 612 | 168 |
Li2CO3 | pure | 732 | 509 | NaF/LiF/CaF2 | 38.3/35.2/26.5 ** | 615 | 636 |
KBr | pure | 734 | 215 | LiF/NaF/CaF2 | 52/35/13 ** | 615 | 640 |
CaBr2 | pure | 736 | 145 | CaCl2/CaSO4/CaMoO4 | 38.5/11.5/50 | 673 | 224 |
NaBr | pure | 749 | 225 | NaCl/NaF | 66.5/33.5 ** | 675 | 572 |
KCl | pure | 771 | 248 | Na2CO3/K2CO3 | 52.2/47.8 | 710 | 176 |
CaCl2 | pure | 772 | 353 | Na2CO3/K2CO3 | 50/50 | 710 | 163 |
RbF | pure | 774 | 253 | Na2CO3/K2CO3 | 49/51 | 710 | 782 |
NaCl | pure | 802 | 482 | LiF/MgF2/KF | 64/30/6 ** | 710 | 790 |
PbF2 | pure | 824 | 60 | LiF/CaF2 | 80.5/19.5 ** | 767 | 650 |
LiF | pure | 845 | 1044 | NaF/MgF2/KF | 64/20/16 ** | 804 | 543 |
Na2CO3 | pure | 854 | 275.7 | NaF/MgF2 | 75/25 ** | 832 | 627 |
Li2SO4 | pure | 858 | 84 | CaF2/CaSO4/CaMoO4 | 49/41.4/9.6 ** | 943 | 237 |
KF | pure | 858 | 468 | ||||
Na2SO4 | pure | 884 | 165 | ||||
K2CO3 | pure | 897 | 235.8 | ||||
BaCl2 | pure | 961 | 76 | ||||
K2CrO4 | pure | 973 | 170 | ||||
NaF | pure | 996 | 794 | ||||
PbSO4 | pure | 1000 | 133 |
PCM Type (wt %) | Melting Point (°C) | Latent Heat (kJ/kg) | Energy Density (MJ/m3) |
---|---|---|---|
MgCl2-NaCl (38.5/61.5) | 435 | 351 | 870 |
Na2CO3-Li2CO3 (56/44) | 496 | 370 | 858 |
NaF-MgF2 (75/25) | 650 | 860 | 2425 |
MgCl2 | 714 | 452 | 967 |
LiF-CaF2 (80.5/19.5) | 767 | 816 | 1950 |
NaCl | 800 | 492 | 1062 |
Na2CO3 | 854 | 276 | 698 |
K2CO3 | 897 | 236 | 540 |
Equation | Units | |
---|---|---|
(1) | ||
M | (2) | |
(3) | ||
(4) | ||
(5) | ||
(6) | ||
(7) | ||
(8) | ||
(9) | ||
(10) |
HTF (air) | (11) | |
PCM | (12) |
HTF | |
PCM |
Parameter | Value | Unit |
---|---|---|
Tair_in | 290 | °C |
Tair_out | 550 | °C |
TPCM_melt | 572 | °C |
2.5144 | ||
1.0748 | ||
Pa s | ||
1935 | ||
2.6 | ||
0.56 | ||
195.5 |
Number of Tanks | 1 | |
---|---|---|
Tank Section area | 166.7 | m2 |
Tank Radius | 7.29 | m |
Tank Height | 6 | m |
Tank Volume | 500 | m3 |
Volume of the PCM inside | 304 | m3 |
Weight of the PCM inside | 587.7 | tons |
0.3 | ||
T_in PCM | 851 | K |
T_in PCM | 573 | K |
T_in AIR | 563 | K |
T_out AIR | 823 | K |
HTF mass flow | 65.2 | m3/s |
HTF velocity | 1.3 | m/s |
Reynold number | 2060 | |
Discharging heat | 94.3 | GJ |
Discharging time (3 h) | 10,800 | s |
Discharging power | 50 | MW |
Units | Total Cost in EUR | ||
---|---|---|---|
Total PCM weight | 587,723 | kg | |
Storage efficiency | 60% | ||
Actual PCM weight needed | 763,277 | kg | |
Actual PCM cost | 230,406 | ||
Sphere diameter | 5 | cm | |
Al thickness | 0.0040 | m | |
Total number of spheres | 6,650,113 | ||
Total Al weight | 1,409,491 | kg | 2,635,749 |
Tank radius | 7.29 | m | |
Tank height | 6.00 | m | |
Tank volume | 1000 | m3 | |
Total costs: tank + PCM | |||
With SA516 gr 70 | 128,127 | ||
With AISI 304 | 253,585 | ||
With AISI 3016 | 293,625 | ||
PCM manufacturing impact on the total cost | 25% | ||
Total cost including PCM manufacturing | |||
With SA516 gr 70 | 3,710,821 | ||
With AISI 304 | 3,836,279 | ||
With AISI 3016 | 3,876,319 | ||
Investment costs per electric power and electric energy | |||
Cost EUR/kW with SA516 gr 70 | 74.22 EUR/kW | ||
Cost EUR/kWh with SA516 gr 70 | 24.74 EUR/kWh | ||
Cost EUR/kW with AISI 304 | 76.73 EUR/kW | ||
Cost EUR/kWh with AISI 304 | 25.58 EUR/kWh | ||
Cost EUR/kW with AISI 316 | 77.53 EUR/kW | ||
Cost EUR/kWh with AISI 316 | 25.84 EUR/kWh |
PCM Manufacturing Cost (%) | 25% | 50% | 75% | 100% |
---|---|---|---|---|
EUR/kWh | ||||
SA516 gr 70 | 24.74 | 29.52 | 34.29 | 39.07 |
AISI 304 | 25.58 | 30.35 | 35.13 | 39.91 |
AISI 3016 | 25.84 | 30.62 | 35.40 | 40.17 |
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Sau, G.S.; Tripi, V.; Tizzoni, A.C.; Liberatore, R.; Mansi, E.; Spadoni, A.; Corsaro, N.; Capocelli, M.; Delise, T.; Della Libera, A. High-Temperature Chloride-Carbonate Phase Change Material: Thermal Performances and Modelling of a Packed Bed Storage System for Concentrating Solar Power Plants. Energies 2021, 14, 5339. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175339
Sau GS, Tripi V, Tizzoni AC, Liberatore R, Mansi E, Spadoni A, Corsaro N, Capocelli M, Delise T, Della Libera A. High-Temperature Chloride-Carbonate Phase Change Material: Thermal Performances and Modelling of a Packed Bed Storage System for Concentrating Solar Power Plants. Energies. 2021; 14(17):5339. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175339
Chicago/Turabian StyleSau, Giovanni Salvatore, Valerio Tripi, Anna Chiara Tizzoni, Raffaele Liberatore, Emiliana Mansi, Annarita Spadoni, Natale Corsaro, Mauro Capocelli, Tiziano Delise, and Anna Della Libera. 2021. "High-Temperature Chloride-Carbonate Phase Change Material: Thermal Performances and Modelling of a Packed Bed Storage System for Concentrating Solar Power Plants" Energies 14, no. 17: 5339. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175339