Spillover of Vaccine Hesitancy into Adult COVID-19 and Influenza: The Role of Race, Religion, and Political Affiliation in the United States
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Measurement of Vaccination
2.3. Measurement of Sociodemographic Status
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Overall Vaccination Characteristics
3.2. COVID-19 and Flu Vaccination Non-Receipt
3.3. Vaccine Hesitancy
3.4. Non-Receipt of COVID-19 Vaccination
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Count (Column %) | Vaccine Hesitancy Count (Row %) | Non-Receipt of COVID-19 Vaccination Count (Row %) | Non-Receipt of Flu Vaccination Count (Row %) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total count | 700 (100%) | 319 (41%) | 137 (17%) | 288 (36%) | |
Gender | p = 0.1887 | p = 0.0022 | p = 0.2532 | ||
Male | 327 (48%) | 133 (38%) | 44 (12%) | 116 (34%) | |
Female | 357 (52%) | 163 (43%) | 83 (22%) | 167 (38%) | |
Other | 3 (0.2%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Age | p = 0.0009 | p = 0.1014 | p = 0.0124 | ||
18–24 | 181 (12%) | 92 (54%) | 44 (26%) | 93 (48%) | |
25–34 | 183 (19%) | 85 (51%) | 33 (18%) | 78 (42%) | |
35–44 | 197 (17%) | 76 (40%) | 30 (14%) | 73 (36%) | |
≥45 | 126 (52%) | 43 (34%) | 20 (16%) | 39 (31%) | |
Region | p = 0.7764 | p = 0.2980 | p = 0.1933 | ||
US West | 142 (23%) | 59 (36%) | 21 (14%) | 61 (33%) | |
US Midwest | 115 (22%) | 53 (43%) | 25 (18%) | 46 (29%) | |
US South | 275 (36%) | 119 (41%) | 62 (21%) | 120 (43%) | |
US Northeast | 155 (20%) | 65 (43%) | 19 (12%) | 56 (35%) | |
Education | p = 0.0035 | p < 0.0001 | p = 0.0592 | ||
≤High school | 197 (24%) | 100 (47%) | 61 (26%) | 97 (42%) | |
Associate’s | 177 (26%) | 89 (51%) | 39 (24%) | 85 (43%) | |
Bachelor’s | 197 (28%) | 66 (28%) | 14 (4%) | 66 (30%) | |
Graduate | 116 (21%) | 41 (39%) | 13 (15%) | 35 (29%) | |
Race/Ethnicity | p = 0.0075 | p < 0.0001 | p = 0.0006 | ||
Other | 43 (7%) | 18 (45%) | 5 (11%) | 23 (51%) | |
NH Black | 84 (11%) | 47 (60%) | 32 (39%) | 51 (59%) | |
Hispanic | 113 (16%) | 60 (48%) | 16 (10%) | 40 (32%) | |
NH white | 447 (65%) | 171 (35%) | 74 (16%) | 169 (31%) | |
Religion | p = 0.0419 | p < 0.0001 | p < 0.0001 | ||
Catholic /Orthodox | 97 (19%) | 40 (32%) | 13 (11%) | 37 (30%) | |
Evangelical | 170 (25%) | 74 (46%) | 23 (13%) | 56 (32%) | |
Mainline | 43 (10%) | 13 (27%) | 7 (7%) | 15 (22%) | |
Other Christian | 28 (3%) | 12 (32%) | 8 (20%) | 15 (54%) | |
Jewish | 29 (5%) | 13 (52%) | 2 (10%) | 5 (21%) | |
Muslim | 39 (4%) | 11 (34%) | 0 (0%) | 4 (7%) | |
Other | 60 (6%) | 42 (64%) | 21 (33%) | 34 (61%) | |
Nothing | 221 (29%) | 91 (42%) | 53 (28%) | 117 (47%) | |
Political Affiliation | p = 0.0414 | p = 0.0029 | p = 0.0004 | ||
Democrat | 307 (40%) | 102 (33%) | 35 (11%) | 105 (32%) | |
Independent | 186 (30%) | 110 (45%) | 62 (27%) | 118 (51%) | |
Republican | 184 (30%) | 84 (47%) | 30 (16%) | 60 (27%) |
Received Both COVID-19 and Flu Vaccination | Received Only COVID-19 Vaccination | Received Only Flu Vaccination | Received Neither | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total count | 488 (61%) | 176 (22%) | 25 (3%) | 112 (14%) | ||
Gender | Male | 212 (65%) | 79 (23%) | 7 (2%) | 37 (11%) | 0.0353 |
Female | 180 (57%) | 99 (21%) | 15 (4%) | 68 (17%) | ||
Other | 3 (100%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Age | 18–24 | 84 (46%) | 57 (27%) | 8 (5%) | 36 (21%) | 0.0843 |
25–34 | 105 (56%) | 49 (26%) | 4 (2%) | 29 (16%) | ||
35–44 | 121 (61%) | 49 (25%) | 6 (3%) | 24 (11%) | ||
≥45 | 85 (66%) | 23 (18%) | 4 (3%) | 16 (13%) | ||
Region | US West | 80 (65%) | 42 (21%) | 2 (2%) | 19 (12%) | 0.4638 |
US Midwest | 68 (65%) | 26 (16%) | 5 (5%) | 20 (13%) | ||
US South | 148 (54%) | 70 (25%) | 12 (3%) | 50 (18%) | ||
US Northeast | 99 (64%) | 40 (24%) | 3 (2%) | 16 (11%) | ||
Education | ≤High school | 96 (54%) | 44 (19%) | 8 (4%) | 53 (23%) | 0.0005 |
Associate’s | 87 (52%) | 53 (24%) | 7 (5%) | 32 (19%) | ||
Bachelor’s | 135 (70%) | 54 (26%) | 2 (<0.5%) | 12 (4%) | ||
Graduate | 77 (68%) | 27 (17%) | 5 (4%) | 8 (11%) | ||
Race/Ethnicity | Other | 22 (49%) | 18 (40%) | 0 | 5 (11%) | <0.0001 |
NH Black | 30 (36%) | 24 (25%) | 5 (5%) | 27 (35%) | ||
Hispanic | 72 (66%) | 28 (25%) | 4 (2%) | 12 (7%) | ||
NH white | 271 (65%) | 108 (19%) | 13 (3%) | 61 (12%) | ||
Religion | Catholic /Orthodox | 59 (69%) | 27 (20%) | 3 (1%) | 10 (10%) | <0.0001 |
Evangelical | 115 (66%) | 36 (21%) | 3 (2%) | 20 (11%) | ||
Mainline | 27 (76%) | 10 (17%) | 2 (2%) | 5 (5%) | ||
Other Christian | 11 (40%) | 9 (39%) | 2 (5%) | 6 (15%) | ||
Jewish | 24 (79%) | 3 (11%) | 0 | 2 (10%) | ||
Muslim | 39 (93%) | 4 (7%) | 0 | 0 | ||
Other | 24 (37%) | 15 (30%) | 2 (2%) | 19 (31%) | ||
Nothing | 96 (46%) | 74 (26%) | 10 (7%) | 43 (21%) | ||
Political Affiliation | Democrat | 200 (65%) | 81 (24%) | 11 (3%) | 24 (7%) | 0.0004 |
Independent | 72 (47%) | 63 (27%) | 7 (3%) | 55 (24%) | ||
Republican | 123 (70%) | 34 (14%) | 4 (3%) | 26 (13%) |
Vaccine Hesitancy OR (95% CI) | Non-Receipt of COVID-19 Vaccination OR (95% CI) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | REF | REF | 0.1325 |
Not Male | 1.3 (0.8, 2.0) | 2.2 (1.2, 4.1) | ||
Age | 18–24 | 0.9 (0.5, 1.5) | 0.9 (0.4, 1.8) | 0.7359 |
25–34 | REF | REF | ||
35–44 | 0.7 (0.4, 1.2) | 0.9 (0.5, 1.9) | ||
≥45 | 0.6 (0.3, 1.1) | 1.0 (0.5, 2.0) | ||
Region | US West | 0.6 (0.3, 1.2) | 0.9 (0.3, 2.3) | 0.4712 |
US Midwest | 1.1 (0.5, 2.2) | 1.4 (0.6, 3.7) | ||
US South | 0.8 (0.4, 1.4) | 1.6 (0.7, 3.8) | ||
US Northeast | REF | REF | ||
Education | ≤High school | 1.6 (0.9, 3.0) | 6.2 (2.7, 14.6) | 0.0938 |
Associate’s | 2.6 (1.4, 4.9) | 5.7 (2.5, 13.1) | ||
Bachelor’s | REF | REF | ||
Graduate | 1.8 (0.9, 3.6) | 4.0 (1.5, 10.8) | ||
Race/Ethnicity | Other | 1.5 (0.7, 3.6) | 0.7 (0.2, 2.7) | 0.0723 |
NH Black | 3.0 (1.5, 6.0) | 3.7 (1.8, 7.8) | ||
Hispanic | 1.6 (0.9, 2.9) | 0.6 (0.3, 1.1) | ||
NH white | REF | REF | ||
Religion | Catholic/Orthodox | REF | REF | 0.0697 |
Evangelical | 1.7 (0.8, 3.4) | 1.1 (0.4, 3.2) | ||
Other | 2.8 (1.3, 6.1) | 1.4 (0.5, 4.1) | ||
Other Christian | 0.9 (0.3, 2.2) | 0.6 (0.2, 1.7) | ||
Nothing | 1.4 (0.7, 2.7) | 2.6 (1.0, 6.8) | ||
Political Affiliation | Democrat | REF | REF | 0.2447 |
Independent | 2.0 (1.2, 3.4) | 3.9 (2.1, 7.3) | ||
Republican | 2.3 (1.3, 4.1) | 2.6 (1.2, 5.5) |
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Zhang, V.; Zhu, P.; Wagner, A.L. Spillover of Vaccine Hesitancy into Adult COVID-19 and Influenza: The Role of Race, Religion, and Political Affiliation in the United States. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 3376. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043376
Zhang V, Zhu P, Wagner AL. Spillover of Vaccine Hesitancy into Adult COVID-19 and Influenza: The Role of Race, Religion, and Political Affiliation in the United States. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(4):3376. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043376
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Victoria, Peiyao Zhu, and Abram L. Wagner. 2023. "Spillover of Vaccine Hesitancy into Adult COVID-19 and Influenza: The Role of Race, Religion, and Political Affiliation in the United States" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 4: 3376. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043376