Family Characteristics, Transgender Identity and Emotional Symptoms in Adolescence: A Population Survey Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Are there associations between transgender identity and socioeconomic and psychosocial family factors among adolescents aged 14–20?
- Are there differences in these characteristics between binary and non-binary gender minority youth?
- Are transgender identities associated with depression and anxiety when socioeconomic and psychosocial family factors are accounted for?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The School Health Promotion Study
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Sex and Gender Identity
2.2.2. Sociodemographic and Psychosocial Variables
2.2.3. Emotional Symptoms
2.2.4. Implausible, Likely Facetious Responding
2.3. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
Methodological Considerations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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% (n/N) | Mean (sd); Median; Range | |
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Male | 48.9 (63,764/1,303,222) | |
Female | 51.1 (66,558/130,322) | |
Age | 15.8 (1.3); 16; 13–20 | |
Gender identity | - | |
Cisgender | 95.3 (124,219/129,126) | |
0.6 | ||
Opposite-sex identification | (813/129,126) | |
3.1 | ||
Non-binary/other | (4094/130,322) | |
Not living with both parents | 31.1 (40,553/125,870) | - |
Mother’s education low | 5.2 (6722/119,498) | - |
Father’s education low | 8.2 (10,657/117,314) | - |
Parental unemployment | 29.9 (38,923/124,737) | - |
Depression | 13.0 (16,949/128,879) | 1.0 (1.5); 0; 0–6 |
Anxiety | 11.3 (14,752/129,076) | 3.8 (4.6); 2; 0–21 |
Family life events | - | 0.3 (0.6); 0; 0–4 |
Lack of family cohesion | - | 2.5 (2.0); 2; 0–10 |
Perceived economic resources | - | 2.2 (0.9); 2; 1–5 |
Step 1 | Step 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | p | OR (95% CI) | p | |
Age | 1.0 (1.0–1.0) | 0.07 | 1.0 (1.0–0.1) | 0.02 |
Sex | ||||
Male | ref. | ref. | ||
Female | 1.5 (1.4–1.6) | <0.001 | 1.3 (1.2–1.4) | <0.001 |
Socioeconomic family variables | ||||
Not living with both parents | 1.2 (1.2–1.3) | <0.001 | 1.0 (1.0–1.1) | 0.3 |
Mother’s education low | 1.4 (1.3–1.6) | <0.001 | 1.3 (1.13–1.43) | <0.001 |
Father’s education low | 1.2 (1.1–1.3) | 0.002 | 1.1 (1.0–1.3) | 0.04 |
Parents’ unemployment | 1.3 (1.2–1.4) | <0.001 | 1.1 (1.1–1.2) | 0.001 |
Psychosocial family variables | ||||
Family life events | 1.3 (1.2–1.4) | <0.001 | ||
Lack of family cohesion | 1.2 (1.2–1.3) | <0.001 | ||
Perceived economic resources | 1.1 (1.1–1.1) | <0.001 |
Step 1 | Step 2 | Step 3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | p | OR (95% CI) | p | OR (95% CI) | p | |
Age | 1.0 (1.0–1.0) | 0.4 | 1.00 (1.0–1.0) | 0.7 | 0.1 (1.0–1.0) | 0.5 |
Sex | ||||||
Male | ref | ref | ref | ref | ||
Female | 1.7 (1.7–1.8) | <0.001 | 1.7 (1.6–1.8) | <0.001 | 1.5 (1.4–1.6) | <0.001 |
Gender identity | ||||||
Cisgender | ref | ref | ref | ref | ||
Opposite-sex identification | 1.8 (1.4–2.2) | <0.001 | 1.7 (1.3–2.1) | <0.001 | 1.5 (1.2–1.9) | 0.001 |
Non-binary/other | 3.1 (2.8–3.4) | <0.001 | 3.0 (2.7–3.3) | <0.001 | 2.3 (2.1–2.5) | <0.001 |
Anxiety | 29.2 (27.9–30.5) | <0.001 | 27.8 (26.5–29.1) | <0.001 | 21.7 (20.7–22.8) | <0.001 |
Socioeconomic family variables | - | |||||
Not living with both parents | 1.3 (1.2–1.3) | <0.001 | 1.1 (1.0–1.1) | 0.01 | ||
Mother’s education low | 1.2 (1.1–1.3) | 0.002 | 1.0 (0.9–1.2) | 0.4 | ||
Father’s education low | 1.1 (1.0–1.2) | 0.003 | 1.0 (1.0–1.1) | 0.3 | ||
Parental unemployment | 1.4 (1.3–1.4) | <0.001 | 1.1 (1.1–1.2) | <0.001 | ||
Psychosocial family variables | - | - | ||||
Family life events | 1.1 (1.1–1.2) | <0.001 | ||||
Lack of family cohesion | 1.4 (1.4–1.4) | <0.001 | ||||
Perceived economic resources | 1.2 (1.2–1.2) | <0.001 |
Step 1 | Step 2 | Step 3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | p | OR (95% CI) | p | OR (95% CI) | p | |
Age | 1.1 (1.1–1.1) | <0.001 | 1.1 (1.1–1.1) | <0.001 | 1.1 (1.1–1.1) | <0.001 |
Sex (natal) | ||||||
Male | ref | ref | ref | ref | ||
Female | 3.5 (3.3–3.7) | <0.001 | 3.6 (3.4–3.7) | <0.001 | 3.3 (3.2–3.5) | <0.001 |
Gender identity | ||||||
Cisgender | ref | ref | ref | ref | ||
Opposite-sex identification | 1.5 (1.2–1.9) | <0.001 | 1.5 (1.2–1.9) | <0.001 | 1.4 (1.1–1.8) | 0.01 |
Non-binary/other | 1.6 (1.4–1.7) | <0.001 | 1.2 (1.1–1.3) | <0.001 | 1.4 (1.3–1.6) | <0.001 |
Depression | 29.2 (28.0–30.5) | <0.001 | 27.9 (26.6–29.2) | <0.001 | 21.7 (20.7–22.8) | <0.001 |
Socioeconomic family variables | ||||||
Not living with both parents | - | 1.2 (1.1–1.3) | <0.001 | 1.1 (1.0–1.1) | 0.03 | |
Mother’s education low | - | 1.0 (0.9–1.1) | 0.6 | 1.0 (0.9–1.1) | 0.4 | |
Father’s education low | - | 1.1 (1.0–1.2) | 0.03 | 1.1 (1.0–1.1) | 0.3 | |
Parents’ unemployment | - | 1.2 (1.1–1.3) | <0.001 | 1.1 (1.0–1.1) | 0.01 | |
Psychosocial family variables | ||||||
Family life events | - | - | 1.2 (1.2–1.3) | <0.001 | ||
Lack of family cohesion | - | - | 1.2 (1.1–1.2) | <0.001 | ||
Perceived economic resources | - | - | 1.1 (1.1–1.2) | <0.001 |
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Kaltiala, R.; Heino, E.; Marttunen, M.; Fröjd, S. Family Characteristics, Transgender Identity and Emotional Symptoms in Adolescence: A Population Survey Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 2948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042948
Kaltiala R, Heino E, Marttunen M, Fröjd S. Family Characteristics, Transgender Identity and Emotional Symptoms in Adolescence: A Population Survey Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(4):2948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042948
Chicago/Turabian StyleKaltiala, Riittakerttu, Elias Heino, Mauri Marttunen, and Sari Fröjd. 2023. "Family Characteristics, Transgender Identity and Emotional Symptoms in Adolescence: A Population Survey Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 4: 2948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042948