Aftermath of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Resilience and Mental Health of Emerging Adult University Students
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Resilience and Mental Health in the COVID-19 Era
1.2. Exploring Resilience and Mental Health of Emerging Adult Students during the Pandemic
1.3. Aim of the Study, Research Hypotheses, and Questions
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Materials
- The «Coronavirus Impacts Questionnaire» (Short. CIQ) [33] was used to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aspects of daily life. This 6-item scale is scored on a Likert-type scale (1 = totally disagree and 7 = totally agree). Higher scores on the scale suggest higher impacts of the pandemic. The scale consists of three subscales, measuring financial, resource, and psychological (namely depression) impacts. Sample items include “The Coronovirus (COVID-19) has impacted me negatively from a financial point of view” and “I have had a hard time getting needed resources (food, toilet paper) due to the Coronavirus (COVID-19)”. The original scale is reported to have high internal reliability (financial subscale: α = 0.76, resource: α = 0.93, and psychological: α = 0.89). In the Greek sample, α = 0.71 for the total scale, α = 0.63 for the financial subscale, and α = 0.81 for both resource and psychological subscales.
- The «GHQ-12» (General Health Questionnaire-12) [34] is a self-administered screening questionnaire for assessing common psychiatric disorders, namely depression, anxiety, and psychosomatic illness. The questionnaire comprises 12 items, scored on a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 = not at all to 4 = very often). Higher scores indicate higher levels of mental distress. Sample items include (In the past 4 weeks you have…) “lost much sleep over worry” and “Been able to face up to your problems”. In research with youths, Cronbach’s αs ranged from α = 0.83 to α = 0.88, and in this study α = 0.86.
- The «Resilience Scale» (RS) [35,36], a 15-item scale was used to measure resilience as a dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Items are scored using a 7-point Likert agree–disagree scale ranging from 1 = agree to 7 = disagree. All items are positively phrased so that a higher score indicates higher resilience. Sample items include “I usually manage one way or another” and “I can usually find something to laugh about”. The initial authors [35] report that the scale has concurrent validity with scales of morale, life satisfaction, and depression, and Neill and Dias [36] report Cronbach’s α = 0.91. Reliability in a Greek sample was α = 0.73, while Cronbach’s α in this study was α = 0.89.
2.3. Procedure
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Impacts of the Pandemic, Resilience, and Mental Health in Emerging Adulthood
3.2.1. Total Impacts of the Pandemic on Emerging Adult Resilience and Mental Health
3.2.2. Financial, Resource, and Psychological Impacts of the Pandemic and Relations with Resilience and Mental Health in Emerging Adulthood
3.3. Mental Health as a Moderator in the Relationship between COVID-19 Impacts and Resilience in Emerging Adulthood
4. Discussion
4.1. Discussing Demographics and Relations among Pandemic-Related Impacts, Mental Health, and Resilience in Emerging Adulthood
4.2. Predicting Resilience in Emerging Adult Students during the Pandemic
4.3. The Moderating Role of Mental Health
4.4. Study Limitations, Contribution, Implications, and Recommendations for Future Research, Practice, and Public Policy
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Demographic Variables | Emerging Adults University Students (N = 205) | |
---|---|---|
Age | 18–21 yrs | 170 (82.9%) |
22–25 yrs | 29 (14.1%) | |
26–29 yrs | 6 (2.9%) | |
Gender | Female | 174 (84.9%) |
Male | 29 (14.1%) | |
Other | 2 (1%) | |
Family SES | Lower | 22 (10.7%) |
Medium | 157 (76.6%) | |
Higher | 9 (4.4%) | |
N/A | 17 (8.3%) | |
Year of study | 1st yr | 87 (42.4%) |
2nd yr | 53 (25.9%) | |
3rd yr | 34 (16.6%) | |
4th yr | 23 (11.2%) | |
>4th yr | 8 (3.9%) | |
Live in place of study | Yes | 183 (89.3%) |
No | 22 (10.7%) | |
Accommodation, if Yes | Family | 43 (21%) |
Alone | 89 (43.4%) | |
Roommates | 21 (10.2%) | |
Relatives | 10 (4.9%) | |
Hall of Residence | 15 (7.3%) | |
Partner | 6 (2.9%) | |
Accommodation, if No | Family | 20 (9.8%) |
Alone | 13 (6.3%) | |
Relatives | 4 (2%) | |
Hall of Residence | 15 (7.3%) | |
Partner | 2 (2.9%) | |
Satisfaction with living conditions | Not at all | 3 (1.5%) |
A little | 14 (6.8%) | |
Moderate | 67 (32.7%) | |
A lot | 121 (59%) |
Scales 1 | M (SD) | Cronbach’s Alpha | CIQ | GHQ |
---|---|---|---|---|
CIQ | 3.36 (1.18) | 0.71 | - | |
GHQ | 26.3 (6.36) | 0.86 | 0.21 ** | - |
RS | 5.35 (.94) | 0.89 | 0.00 | 0.33 *** |
[Satisfaction with living arrangements] | 3.36 (1.18) | - |
Scales 1 | M (SD) | Cronbach’s Alpha | RS | GHQ | CIQ Financial | CIQ Resource |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RS | 5.35 (0.94) | 0.86 | - | |||
GHQ | 26.3 (6.36) | 0.89 | −0.35 *** | - | ||
CIQ Financial | 3.22 (1.48) | 0.63 | 0.04 | 0.00 | - | |
CIQ Resource | 3.21 (1.65) | 0.81 | 0.11 | 0.08 | 0.48 *** | - |
CIQ Psychological | 3.63 (1.8) | 0.81 | −0.13 * | 0.33 *** | 0.12 | 0.22 *** |
[Satisfaction with living arrangements] | 3.49 (0.69) | - |
Independent Variables | B | T | Sig T | R2 | ΔR2 | ΔF |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Satisfaction with living arrangements | 0.15 | 2.36 | 0.01 ** | 0.04 | 0.04 | 8.36 ** |
CIQ | 0.07 | 1.16 | 0.24 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.95 |
GHQ | −0.34 | −5.18 | 0.00 *** | 0.14 | 0.11 | 26.86 *** |
Independent Variables | B | T | Sig T | R2 | ΔR2 | ΔF |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Satisfaction with living arrangements | 0.14 | 2.23 | 0.026 * | 0.03 | 0.04 | 8.36 ** |
CIQ Financial | −0.02 | −0.35 | 0.724 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 2.97 * |
CIQ Resource | 0.17 | 2.26 | 0.025 * | |||
CIQ Psychological | −0.06 | −0.9 | 0.369 | |||
GHQ | −0.032 | −4.68 | 0.000 *** | 0.15 | 0.09 | 21.94 *** |
Variable | B | SE | t | p | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CIQ | −0.38 | 0.23 | −1.67 | 0.09 | [−0.84, 0.69] |
GHQ | −0.11 | 0.03 | −3.56 | 0.00 | [−0.17, −0.49] |
CIQ × GHQ | 0.01 | 0.009 | 1.99 | 0.04 | [0.00, 0.34] |
Satisfaction with living arrangements | 0.20 | 0.09 | 2.25 | 0.02 | [0.02, 0.37] |
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Leontopoulou, S. Aftermath of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Resilience and Mental Health of Emerging Adult University Students. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 6911. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20206911
Leontopoulou S. Aftermath of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Resilience and Mental Health of Emerging Adult University Students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(20):6911. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20206911
Chicago/Turabian StyleLeontopoulou, Sophie. 2023. "Aftermath of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Resilience and Mental Health of Emerging Adult University Students" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 20: 6911. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20206911